AMERICAN JOURNAL
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS,
Prorrssors JAMES D. DANA anp B. SILLIMAN.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS,
Proressors ASA GRAY anp WOLCOTT GIBBS,
OF CAMBRIDGE,
AND
Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON, S. W. JOHNSON ¥
GEO. J. BRUSH anv A. E. VERRILL,
OF NEW HAVEN.
THIRD SERIES,
VOL. IV.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CIV.|
Nos. 19—24.
JULY TO DECEMBER, 1872.
WITH FIVE PLATES.
NEW HAVEN: EDITORS.
1872.
Anne
PRINTED BY TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, 221 sTaTE srr,
MissouR} BOTANICAL
GARDEN LIBRARY
CONTENTS OF VOLUME IV.
8
NUMBER XIX.
ART. Be: ie of Recent Earthquakes; by C. G. Rocx-
Deis oe) 20k gg wen eee gk re es Sn oe a Sos ae 1
IL. olan from the Physical Laboratory of Harvard
ata be No. ty Pier be Ceggune Condition of Gas
Flames; by Jon OWERINOS, sc poe oonch Sn FE ae 4
Ill. the Maienis r sie Coasiiiegt Physics by W.A. Norton, 8
IV.—On the Datolite from Bergen Hill, New Jersey ; by Ep-
WARDS cI AWae 2 WG Piste Ly uc po Je. eden a sen 16
V.—On certain Lower sepia rocks in St. Lawrence county,
; eA OME Bui Shares phd bee test 4d te Ss 3
VL—On a simple Apearatts for me hyp ee hac ne
with Electricity of high tension; by A. W. W 738
VIl.—On the Action - Ozone upon ‘Vuleanized Masse ey
Nya Wa Wh RIGHE, 2s ccna 3. on ete eo a heed 29
VU. On the Gesane Coral Island Subsidence; by Jamzs
pds Se De oe La ew Sines ate oe 2 epee eee ee ee 31
IX.—On a precise Method of tracing the Progress and of de-
termining the ae pei of a Wave of Conducted Heat ;
by Anwenp Mi Mayee, oo oo% ob ce vitiengs- arden edit 37
X.—Remarks on the ee. Criticisms of Prof. Dana; by T.
EMRE SAUNT yd cca ebok Siviias st 055.0. eum es 41
XL—On ee: Meteor of April 30th-May Ist; by Danten
eR rl od eds sd ie 52
XI. —Out the ‘Tertiary Basin of the Marafion; by Cu. Frep.
Beets Cee Sask baw ae es 53
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—On the wg td emitted by the vapor 3 iodine, Satet: On
the absorption spectra of the vapors of selenium and of.certain other bodies,
GERNEZ, g anies = Sete te n spectra of the vapors se pacar selenious
acid and h : On soap of silver, Gor! th
of fixing the Comets of Acids an d Alcohols ‘by the oat
of their
age Poporr, 61.—On Phenol-eolors and their Relation to Natural own
ng Ma YER, 64
AEYER, 62.—
Citeny and Natural History.—On t os Kozoon, Dawson, 65. ae of a
hs of
a Large
Bone Cave in re ee 69 —Pseudomorp Serpentin e with the form of
Staurolite, Ranp, is —Hisingerite, from the Gap Mine, a yowstoved County,
Pa., Ranp: Descriptions of new species of fossils from the vicinity of Louis-
ville, Ky.. and i Falls of the Ohio, JamEs Haun and R. P. W
Mine ical i soo of vom
bi asiinocomt
gs sactions
the Nova Scotian Insti te of Natural Science of Halifax: sei Micheli, On
mt Re
prem ike Double Star Castor, 77. eee of Ibbenbiihren, Westphalia,
: Meteorites of India, TscHERMAK, 78
iv CONTENPS,
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Cause of the blue and violet chatoyant colors
of Fishes, PoucHET : Tron in the blood, BoussiIngauLt, 78.—Prismatie bows
A th -
T. Rey n Journal of se Go Wot : Notes
ag ag i Ferns en 1869, ete, A. PERREY: Half. io Boceeatione | in
Scien
NUMBER XX.
Arr. XIII.—On the Evaporative Efficiency of Steam Boilers ;
by Wm. P. Tro
: 81
XIV. Description of two new Land Snails from the Coal-
measures; by F, H. BrapLey 87
XV.—On Glacial a in the vicinity of New York
ity; by SRE ENE, ok PULL eu Le ee 88
XVL—On the Hetimation “of wa in Coal and Organic
mimpounas: by WwW. G. Mirsrie, 022i i. sues 8.88 90
ae —On the Address ee the American Association of
rof, T. Sterry Hunt; by James D. Dana. No. II,- 97
XVII —Reply toa “ Note on a saneics of Priority ; ? by
WAM PEATE SS es ree. 105
XIX.—-On the Corundum region of North Carolina and
Georgia, with descriptions of two gigantic erystals of
that species; by Cuartes U. Suerarp, Sr.,_- ---- -- 109
XX.—Ohm’s law counidened from a geometrical point of
Views by Jonn. Trownnipes, 0 0s 20 115
XXI.—New N Gath American Myriopods ; by O. Harcer,_- 117
Te Description of New Tertiary Mammals ;
<7, 2), SAAR. POO bie cee a ans 122
SCIENTIFIC ghee
oct and Physics. —— experiment in refere the question as to vapor-
es, T. PLATEAU, —On the nitr ato- ocala mores of the fatty series, 131.—
eng Sa ction of prance acid by iodhydric acid: On an aldehyd-alcohol, 132.
Geology and Mineralogy.—Fossils probably of the Chazy era in the Eolian Lime-
stone of West Rutland, Bi.Lines: Hayden Exploring Expedition, BRADLEY, 133.
—La Névé de Fst ve ses Glickers , DE SEvE, 134.-—The Ancient Glacier of
the Rhone: Glaci in Fuegia ‘and Patagonia, AGASssiz, 135.—Annual
rt of the Seporbrtamdent of the Louisiana State Uni —— for the oc
1871, 136.—Investigations on Fossil Birds, Mitxe-EDWAnDs, 1 sp Ver.
tebrates from the Niobrara ‘and U pper Missouri: Extinct Simrsais =
Tertiary of Wyominy, Lempy: Graptolites, 142, Pek sap: of New e des
of Fossils, HALL and WHITRIELD : Coal of Lota: On the Rate of Growth of Coral
Reefs, Dawa, 143.—Re r = années 1868 and 1869, Dr B
ni Jordan
tion of the vapors near Vesuvius, GORCEIX Mots on Rhinosaurus, Marsu, 14
Botany ~ Note on Intelligence i in Monkeys, Corr, 147.--Curious Habit
: Dia
of a Snake, Cop toms in Hot Springs, 148.——Life in the Mam
PacKarD, Jr. and AM: Reproduction of ges Robert Brown’s first
Botanical Paper, 149.—Prantl’s memoir e, ~~
the United States: Kan-sun: Martius, Flora ieasiloaia
CONTENTS, Vv
—_— —On the Temperature of the Surface of the Sun, Ericsson, 152.-
Aurora of Feb. 4, Gasp: Edinburgh Astronomical Observations: Astrenicenical
and Deisctcicn Observations made during the year 1869, SANDS.
et seegeme pee a8 Intelligence —Height of Mt. Rainier and Mt. Bak : Gla-
the s of the Pacific Coa rigs Se 156.—Academy of Natural Scns
of Palade phi ia: coe orie della Societa dei Spe troseopisi Italiani, TACOHINI,
157.—Monthly Record of Results of Opearvati ions in Mete Lhe: ogy, ete.:; Hayden’s
Exploring and diarversinns Expedition ; nai of the Peabody Academy of
Sciences, PACKARD, Jr.: Petroleum in San Domingo, MAR Feber 158.—American
Associatio ek 159.— Obituary. n Willia am Sehkepenhs, 159.—Robert Swift: George
R. Gray, 1
MUMBER XXI.
Arr. XXIIL—Researches in Actino-Chemistry. Mem
First. On the Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum; .
J ORI: WO TERA DRAPER Sn i aig wk es so 161
XXIV.—On the Corundum region of North Carolina and
Georgia, with descriptions of two gigantic i gees of
that species; by Cuartes UpHam SHEparp, Sr.,. Bese Wt
aoa Sig of ee of the works of J. Barrande ; ‘by
XXVIE ——— on Dr. sia baa 8 i ad in Dr. Carl’s
“Repertorium;” by ALFRED M, Maymr,._-...-..----- 198
XXVIII. ie eee Description of Mow Tertiary Mam-
mals; by O. C. Marsn,. ----- 202
XXIX.—On certain aac between the mean motions of
the Perihelia of Ju er, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
by Dlamini, IRE WOOD, 6) cas 4c e x- 2 e i gaednoe ” 995
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
os and Physics —On the ammoniacal platinum bases, CLEVE, so
nds containing phosphorus vos gong SCHUTZENBERGE 7.—On
ar specific _— of carbon, H. F. Weser, 228.— What Sst mien oiler
Motion? James Oro, 229.—On ae peur of Yttria and Ceria from
Zirconia and Tron, J. W. TAYLOR, 2
stg fl and Natural History.—On pee and eto Rocks in the Teton
ange, F. —On Cha
R,
ase Taiepetment of the irene of Natural History ry, 237 .—U. 8. Geological
Survey of the Territories, F. Haypen: Damouritic garnetiferous
schist of Salm-Chateau, L. D. z Kontyck and DAVREUX
80) C
° ALL an the
an vern of ghee cee in herd E. Riv Sharks’ teeth
of the Crag, supposed to have been bored by man, “T McK . HUGHES:
‘he G y a i i
vi CONTENTS.
Astronomy.—Annals of the Observatory of Harvard College, Wa. CRANcH Bonp,
242.—Astronomical mares of Moon-Craters, Sun-Spots, e way Aurora
Pag a os March, 243.—The Sun’s Light: The August Meteors: On tw
ts, O.. H. PETERS, eng oe of star-shine, night- light, the
Godincal Tight, C. Prazzi-SMYTH, 2
Espana Scientific Intelligence.—List ~ Elevations and Distances in bo
portion of the United States west of the Mississippi River, C. cas
246. rEtfec t of change of barometric ans on human beings: The
ature and Rainfall of July, 1872, C. Keurgen, Jr: A Manual “Quali.
tative Analysis, RoBERT GALLOWAY, 248.
8,
NUMBER XXII.
Page
Arr, XX X.—On the nature and duration of the discharge
ON age N. Roop. Part IIL (To be continued. - 249
XI. —0n ithe Guinot and Embryology of ebro
lina ; ArD 8. Morsx, Ph.D. With Plate III.... 262
XX xi mtu of the Errata, or “A Few Millions 3” by
AtFreD M. Mayer, Ph.D., 2 4
ee
leable Iron;” by Russet W. Tirumedie ig) + SREB apie 270
XXXVI. —Deseriptions of a ite new species, and one new
enus, of Silurian Fossils, from Ohio; by = B. Merx,.- 274
XXX VII.—Discovery of a New Planet ; : by C. H . F, Perers, 281
XXXVIIL.—Adadress before the American Association at its
recent oo in Dubuque, lowa; by Asa Gray,------ 282
aN —Preli rere fetter oe of New Tertiary Reptiles ;
C. Mar 2
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
istry and Physics.—W ater not = _Bieetrolyte, 3 0.— ahp od Examination of
the new Platinic bemedap Norton: On the pad of Chl Wurtz and
Voer, 312.—On w Organic avis obtained from Dulcite, ‘avcaiaba’ S13.
Geology and No 1 His am —Hayden Rocky Mountain Geological Expedition,
313.—On the teas Valley . Karthquake, 316. ocagrmge ais rface
Geology of Northwestern Ohio, WINCHELL, 321.—Note n Tinocera ceps,
Marsu: A spe ag of the Fossil Crustacea belonging ‘to the Order ‘Meros
tomata, Wi Notice of a
new species of Tinoceras, MARSH
— A Life Slide, 333.
—Extract from the Address of Mr. De La Rue a the British As-
‘oclantis: 324.—Report on Lunar Obj suspected 0 ange, Birt: Aurora
esgeine 326. eid of the ‘equatorial bands of Jupiter: The Object-glass of
Allegheny Observatory stolen: Erratum to Prof. Kirkwood’s Article, 327,
Miscellaneous cE de ta. e.—Meeting 0 of the Se eating = on, 327.—
Papers relating to the Transit of Venus in 1874, 330.—Volcanic Eruption o
Hawaii: Tider waye at the antes Islands: A General ade t to the Dice
CONTENLS. vii
tents of Fourteen ie co eget ier eo pe caine coh Pompeii, 331.—
Sea-Serpents: Bass culture in Eng h Association, 332.— Obituary.
—Sir Andrew Smith : Delaunay, Per
‘DIX.
Euclid’s Doctrine of Parallels; he - C. eon 333
Notice of some Remarkable Fossil Mammals; by O. C. MaRsH 343
Notice of a New and pater sicar Fossil Bird ; by 0. C. MaRsH, 344
NUMBER XXII.
P
Arr. XL.—A Theory of the Formation of the great Features yi
of the Earth’s Surface; by Josepn LeConre, --------- 345
XLL—Catalogue of bright ‘Lines in the Spectrum ‘of the Solar
Atneepiers: bY KR. AD TOUNG, oo... ees soe 356
XLIT.—On the Quartzite, “Limestone and associated rocks of
the vicinity of “ghee reat tate Mass. With a map, on
Plate TV ¢ Dy games D270 k, 3) 362
LUI.—On the iahare ae darsiion of the discharge of a
regi Jar connected with an induction coil; by OapEN
Part II, - Nia aware wig 371
XUIW. a ‘thes Allegheny System of Electric Time Signals; :
by 8 ARGEBY,'¢ 00s cing 25 eee 77
XLV. be ot a piativod “of detecting the phases of vibration in
the air surrounding a sounding body, and thereby meas-
uring directly in the vibrating air the length of its waves
and satan. the form of its wave-surface; by ALF
M. May 387
XLVI. Syren = Evolution ‘of Structure in 1 Seedlings ; by
DORN ©. DG ee os spews
XLVIL. eRajoinder' te Prof. as — iy a ‘Note on a
Question of Prio Pe wy Be iainge 5 ee
VIitt.
XL L — Elements wy fatiets nis or “(193); a A
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—On the Chemical Efficiency of ee = Dewar, 401.
—On the Law of Extraordinary Refraction in Iceland Spar, G. G. Stoxss, 404
—On a new Galvanic Pile, of economic construction, M. ee
Geology and a al History.—Discovery of Fossil Quadrumana in the Eocene of
Wyoming, 0. C. Marsu, 405.—Note orn a new genus of Darniveees from the
Tertiary of Wyoming, O. C. MaRsH: Notice of a New —— from the Oreta-
ceous, O. C. MarsH: Recent Eruption of Mauna Loa, T. Coan; 40 oe of
Mauna Loa to the scene of the Eruption, 407.—Volcanic Energy, an ttempt to
develop its true origin and cosmical relations, R. MALLET, 409 e aalvent action
and Belgium, J. PRESTWICH, 413.— t rvations in Bermudas,
M. Jo 416.—His he names Cam and camige in Geology, T. 8.
Hunt, 416.—Report of the Geological Survey of the State of New ew Hampshire,
©. H. Hircucock, 417.—Memorie per servire alla Daborisions della Carta Geo-
logica a'Ttalia On the Occurrence ¢ Native Sulphuric Aci Eastern '
418.—Analysis 0 mpa North Carolina, J. B
ADGER Leite: in re ber of Fichtelite, J. W.
MALLET, 419.—Botanical a and Intelligence, 420.—A Handbook of
Chemical Technology, R. Wagner: On Beavers and Beaver Dams in Mississippi,
J. SHELTON, 422.
Vili CONTENTS.
Astronomy.—Spectrum of the Aurora, E. S. HOLDEN, 423.
. Scientific Intelligence.—Institute of Technology, Boston: Annual Re-
of the Director of the Meteorological Observatory, Central Park, New York:
Hayden's Geological Exploration in = Rocky Mountains, 424.— Obituary.-—
Rev. John P. acatin John F. Frazer,
NUMBER XXIV.
P
Arr. XLIX.—On a simple and precise method of measuring
the wave-lengths and velocities of sound in Gases; and
on an rid tesoest ud the me poses in the oe of an
Acoustic Pyrometer; by ALFRED M. Mayer,..---.-.-- 425
L.—On ‘le stability of the Collodion Film ; oy Lewis M.
NES Siete ee SariSaiens is een ad ac gh eee 430
LL—Note ar cient Orthoclase, found at the O den
ae separte Township, Sussex Co., N.w.; by. Prof.
ee ee ee Ce ates GS es rel Se ak 33
LIL. =n Soil Analyses and their Utility; by Eve. W. H1-
ee wee Se ee ee ee ae eg 434
LIL_Tke Heat produced in the ‘Sele =e the effects of
Exposure to Gold; by Jom) Dearen,. 222. 2 ek 445
LIV.—On the rtzite, Lucastane iat acasind rocks ‘of
the vicinity of Great Barri rrington, Berkshire Co., Mass. ;
hee U. Wawa AO0gtInGged),. . os oko ose cc 450
LV.—On the relation between Color and Geographical Distri-
bution in Birds, as exhibited i n Melanism and Hyper-
chromism ; by Risser Bibewax.. 0 454
LVL—A Theory of the Ce of the great Features of
the Earth’s Surface; by Josepu LeConre (conclude oe . 460
VIL—On a crystal of Sadat. from Delaware Co. ;
by Epwarp 8. Dana,. OG oS ENE ee 3
LVIII.—Spectrum of Lightning s by Epwarp 8. Ho ys 474
Letter from Dr. B. A, Gourn, irector of the Ohasrvaicey at
Cordoba
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
etric Flames, by R. Konic, 481.—On i
“ight enited oy the et ee compounds of uranium, BECQUEREL, 486.
of the Aurora Borealis , VoGEL, 487.—On the heat of expan
Sat 2 solid tation Burr, 488.
met and Natural History.—Wyo oti Coal Formations, E. Bs Cope: Decaisne’s
i grt of a Gens Pyrte @ —Botanical suppleme: to the fifth Annual
U, 8. Geological Saevay of the Territories fot ‘Tet, by M. Lzs-
si ahs ion
Astronomy.—Elements of Alceste, by C. H. F. Prrers, 495.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Analysis of the Meteoric Iron of Los Angeles,
California, by C. T. Jackson, 495.—Tables and Diagrams relating to non-
_ condensing Engines and a by W. P. TRowpRripGE: Chemistry, Inorganic
and age with ee ae A BLoxaM, 496. Pies of the Mt. Uniache,
Oldham. Renfre Y Gold Mining Districts H. Young Huinp, 497.—
orumndin al Engravings by the Observatory of Cierverd College, 4 497,.— Obituary.
—John F.
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS,
[THIRD SERIES]
Art. I.-—Notices of Recent Earthquakes ; by Prof. C. G. Rocr-
woop, Jr., Bowdoin College.
1. On January 16, 1872, an earthquake almost entirely
destroyed the city of Shamaka in Russia. Over one hundred
persons are reported to have been killed and a large amount of
roperty destroyed, scarcely a building having been left stand-
ing in the city. The earthquake was felt over a large extent of
the surrounding country. Shamaka is a city of 25,000 inhabit-
ants, lying at the southern base of the Caucasus Mountains,
and about 75 miles west of the Caspian Sea.
2. On February 6, at 8 o'clock A. M., a slight shock of earth-
quake was felt at Wenona, Mich. A letter from Ed. D. Cowles
of that place, states :—‘ The shocks were three in number and
lasted altogether about thirty seconds, the vibrations travelling
from the N.N.E. They jarred buildings and were plainly
observable by persons out of doors, and were characterized by
that peculiar rumbling sound which is noticed in subterranean
vibrations.”
3. On February 8, at about 5 a. M., a slight earthquake
occurred at Cairo, Ill. A letter (in my possession) from Geo.
Fisher of Cairo to Clinton L. Conkling of Springfield, IL, gives
the following :—“ I was in bed on the second floor of a brick
dwelling house. It seemed to me that something struck the
head of my bed with considerable violence from the southeast,
making quite a noise and shaking the entire house. The shak-
ing continued for several seconds with varying intensity. I
suppose that fully twenty seconds elapsed before it finally
ceased. Persons who were up at the time seem to think that
Am. Jour. wee bee Series, Vou, IV, No. 1.—Joxy, 1872.
2 C. G. Rockwood on Recent Earthquakes.
the vibrations were from N.W. to S.H. I think they were
the other way, from S.E. to N.W. No damage was done by
= shock.”
On March 6,a despatch from Berlin, Prussia, says :—
‘i Shocks of earthquake were felt this afternoon ng hal
in Dresden, Pirna, Schandau, Chemnitz, Bodenbach, Weimar
and Rudolstadt. ‘The movement was not violent, but was more
or less perceptible at intervals for over an
5. On March 26, the State of California was visited by an
cages bee more severe than any that has occurred there for
som
The e main shock occurred at about 24 25" a. M., and w
felt throughout the length of the State, from Red Bluff on the
north, to San Pedro on the south, thus extending over 64 de-
et Ne of Loe ges and from the Pacific coast inland to Virginia
The hii of this shock is variously reported from 2% 10™ at
Jackson to 25 45™ at White Pine, Nev. The discrepancies are
mate was ps Si one minute.
The region shaken was the eastern and western slopes of the 7
Sierra Nevada, and the Sacramento, San Joaquin and Tulare
valleys, extending southward even into Mexico. (A shock was
re
been pushed toward the N
In many places the first heavy shock was followed by a
series of lesser ones, closing with a stronger one at a few min-
utes after six s.M. And in the neighborhood of the moun-
tains the slight shocks continued te be felt at intervals for some
days or even weeks. Thus a letter from Visalia, dated April
12, says:—“ Ever since the first die of the earthquake we
ON ee ee ee ee ee ee eS ee
fee ers
C. G. Rockwood on Recent Earthquakes. 3
habitants, was greatly damaged by the earthquake, and here
killed and thirty-four others seriously injured. Frame houses
were shaken, but not thrown down. At Independence also
many buildings were prostrated and a few lives lost.
In this valley, and at some other places, the shocks were pee:
ceded and accompanied by a loud rumbling sound, which is
described as being “like a train of cars or like distant artillery.”
Mention was made in the first accounts of large fissures in
the ground, fires seen in the mountains, etc.; but these re-
ports do not seem to be confirmed by the later advices. The
level of Owen’s lake is also said to have risen four feet.
e
published in the newspapers of San Francisco; and for aid in
collecting them, my thanks are due to C. G. Rockwood, Esq.,
Newark, N. J i. C. Smith, Esq., secretary of the Merchants’
Exchange and News Association, New York, Rev. D. W. Poor,
D.D., af Nien ay Cal. and John A. Keyes, postmaster at
a,
It is to be ati that more full and careful scientific accounts
of the physical phenomena may have been collected by some
person on the spot, and that they may in due time be given to
the public.
6. A slight shock was reported at Paducah, Ky., on the
morning of March 26, and another at Salt Lake City, Utah, at
* The following later news has appeared in the columns of the San Francisco
“Zone Pine, May 17, 1872.—We had such a shake to-day as we have not had
since the 26th of March, when the town was reduced to ruins. There has been no
y thrown from my seat. “The shock lasted some thirty seconds.”
&
4 J. Trowbridge—Electrical Condition of Gas Flames.
1 Pp. M. March 28. These may have been part of the Inyo
earthqu uake,
7. On April 8, at 8 o'clock a. M., a severe earthquake
apap Bee a large part of the ancient city of Antioch in Syria.
ock lasted over 40 seconds, and the wave travelled from
east . west. It was accompanied by a noise “like distant
thunder or artillery.” Lighter shocks continued to be felt at
irregular intervals for at least a week after the first one. Very
many buildings were shaken down, filling the narrow streets
with the débris and burying hundreds of the inhabitants
beneath the ruins. “The number of killed is estimated at 1,000
many more were left without shelter. The old
villages south of the Orontes river were also much an
but comparatively little harm was done north of the cit
Noy A despatch from Copenhagen, aang 14, gives the follow-
- lenge at which arrived here to-da ay from Iceland,
pa ries of violent earthquake souk at Hasvick on the
16th, 17th ‘and 18th of April. Twenty houses were destroyed,
and several persons were injured, but no lives were lost.”
9. The recent grand eruption of Mt. Vesuvius is interesting,
as tee possibly connected with the phenomena recorded above.
This eruption first assumed noticeable proportions on the night
of April 24, 1872, when a flow of lava was added to the flames
and smoke which had for months adorned the summit of the
mountain. _ On the night of the 25th, a chasm opened in the
side of the cone, from which issued a torrent of lava; the whole
occurring so suddenly as to overtake and destroy a number of
the spectators who were vs oe eruption. The
lava continued two or three day rwhelmed two villages,
and buried a considerable extent “ot ite»: ese land. The eru
co finally ended with a shower of stones and volcanic san
which fell in the streets of Naples to the depth of several inches.
gi eruption was attended with the cuba local tremblings of
e eart
Brunswick, Me., May 31, 1872.
Art. IL.— Contributions from the Physical ee of Harvard
College ; No. III. On the Electrical Condition of Gas Flames ;
by Fr OHN TROWBRIDGE, Assistant sean of Physics.
Pror. H. Burr, of the University of Giessen, has published
in the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, vol. lxxx, 1, anc
in the Phil. Mag. of Feb., 1852, an investigation of the electri
cal properties of flames. He reviews at first the different
J, Trowbridge—Electrical Condition of Gas Flames, 5
theories in regard to the subject; Becquerel, for instance, finds
electric opposition in all directions in flames which depend
upon the difference of the temperature of the metals immersed
in them. Pouillet recognizes a motion of electricity only from
the interior to the exterior, and hence also from the base to the
summit of the flame; Hankel, however, finds a motion the
reverse of this in the flames produced by the ignition of spirits,
and states that it is independent of the temperature of the im-
mersed conductor.
Prof. Buff then gives the following as the results of his
investigation :
1. Gaseous bodies which have been rendered conductible b
strong heating are capable of exciting other conductors, solid
as well as gaseous, electrica
2. When a thermo-electric circuit is formed of air, hydrogen
or carburetted hydrogen, alcohol vapor, charcoal, or finally a
metal, whether combustible or incombustible, an electric current
is developed, which proceeds through the air from the hottest
place of contact to the less warm place.
8. The development of electricity which has been observed
in processes of combustion, and particularly in flames, is due to
thermo-electric excitation, and stands in no immediate connec-
tion with the chemical process.
4. The products of combustion do not therefore, by any
means, occup the relation to the burning body which has
n assumed by Pouillet; if positive electricity rises with the
ascending gases, it is only in the degree in w which the air exterior
ae the place of hottest contact is “connected by a proper con-
ucto:
The following are the results which I have obtained in test-
ing the ree condition of the flame of a Bunsen burner
a Sir William Thomson’s quadrant electrometer. The
pai given er to the arbitrary divisions of the scale, upon
— a spot of light is reflected from the mirror of the instru-
on connecting the testing plate of one pair of quadrants
of tp. instrument with the flame, while the other pair were
connected with the metallic burner and with- the earth, the
flame was found to be ehcp: electrifie
The following are some of the experiments selected from a
series that were made.
Exp. 1. Flame 12 c. m. high; Plage at the height of 7 c. m.
A — indication of 130°, very steady.
Exp. 2. A platinum wire, su tituted for the plate, and
mocking the flame 3 c. mt the burner, gave a deflection of
30° in a negative direc
Exp. 3. With the testing plate just above the tip of the
@.
6 J. Trowbridge—Electrical Condition of Gas Flames.
flame, the instrument showed a positive deflection of 70 to 80
de
fix, 4. With ae ee plate 5 mm. from the outer sur-
face of the flame, on all sides, a feeble positive charge was
obtained, the air in srhrerten with the flame being apparently
charged ‘positively, the indication in no case exceeding fifty or
sixty degrees on the scale of the electrometer.
Exp. 5. The metallic tip of the burner was found to be
charged positively, giving an indication closely agreeing in the
number of degrees with that corresponding to the — in-
dication of the flame. This indication was quite constant.
Ex hen a glass tip was substituted for the metallic tip,
no charge was found upon it. This was the case when any
non-conducting body formed the tip.
Exp. lass tip having been substituted for the metallic
one, a platinum wire was inserted below the orifice and care-
fully de aaa until it occupied the centre of the in-
Av
terior cone of flam very feeble indication of negative
dautacky Ltn the Nettle
‘ile, with the Bunsen burner, the flame and the metallic
tip are in ilecided electrical opposition ; the one having a nega-
tive charge and the other a nearly equal positive charge; in
spirit flames the two opposite states recombine, the wick of ‘the
lamp and the fluid contained in the vessel connecting the two
charges. The flame, therefore, merely takes the potential of
the atmospheric electricity at the place where it is situated.
The electrical condition of the flame of a Bunsen burner
when tested by a sensitive galvanometer gives in the main the
same results as those obtained by Prof. Buff from spirit flames.
The quantity of electricity in the current passing from the flame
to the tip is exceedingly sm % _— we have seen above
that the terminal immersed in the gas flame has a tension a
little exceeding that of the ole pole of a Daniell’s element.
The air in the room, at the time the above experiments were
first performed, was charged positively to about the tension of
the positive pole of twelve Daniell’s elements. The experi-
ments were afterward repeated when the air in the room indi-
cated a negative charge, with no difference in the results.
At the suggestion of Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, Rumford professor,
m
means of which I could increase the heat and the flow of air and
gas at pleasure. Slight deviations in the scale readings were
Spinal this means: the flow of air appeared to affect the
wo of ee bsiaes the metallic tip, rendering it less con-
riments were in the main confirm
The. ii ae the uallie plate submitted to he flame and
J. Trowbridge—Electrical Condition of Gas Flames. i
generally negative. By placing a setts isle upon the prime
conductor of an electrical machine, he was enabled to change
the jecuiion of the air from a positive to a negative state and
the reverse. He —— separates 8 results obtained from
the idioelectric effect of the flame, w he states, in no case
gave a tension equal to siaeda pole of a Daniel's element.
uring the past ——— observations made in the laboratory
tend to confirm these views. ave, however, found on some
days the air eras octal positive. The room is in the
north-west corner of the building, and there was a strong north-
west wind blowing at the times this was observed. I noticed,
also, while experimenting with the flame of a Bunsen burner
placed near ‘the water drop Aen used by Sir William Thomson
in investigating the electrical state of the atmosphere, that the
positive charge of the air in the neighborhood greatly decreased,
and in some Instances became feebly negative, by the presence
of the flame.
pelo lead :
1. The flame of a Bunson burner is negative while positive
electricity accumulates on the burner itself, if it is a con-
ductor. With orifices made of non-conductors, no charge was
pera Anaya the tip.
e stratum of air in contact with the outer cone of flame
nee ‘a chily charged with positive electricity. The partly con-
gas of the interior cone is neutral.
8. The presence of flames tends to change the nature of the
atmospheric electricity at the given place, reducing a positive
tension to a feebly negative one.
8 W. A. Norton—Molecular and Cosmical Physics.
Art. I1L—On Molecular and Cosmical Physics ; by Prof.
W. A. Norton.
[Concluded.]
13. If we include in the curve of effective molecular action
the external electric attraction which we have seen may arise
within the sphere of what has been called the effective external
repulsion, it will be seen that the curve beyond Oc should be
raised ; and that when an effective death ie supervenes, and
determines a chemical union, it will pass entirely above the zero
line, from ¢ to a certain distance beyond Od. But instead of
this the result may be that it passes above the zero line for a
certain distance, ene at a point, #9 a’ , beyond c, or even
= ee es in a chemical union. As this attraction ope-
tes through a certain distance before - fp is esta-
blshed, Pad or less heat is generally gi
e it (1)as the force of ediecn: attraction ie
ie sd Tiquide (which ip saga ments have shown to
attraction, but should onl promt e the repulsion between
the poner re olecules. to thi fact we see the reason why
each on. The diffusion should not
stop Swati she two gases become a uniform mixture, since as
long as an ideal plane can be taken within the gaseous mass,
Sats eee
W. A. Norton—Molecular and Cosmical Physics. 9
on opposite sides of which the number of molecules of the two
kinds is not the same, the repulsion that takes effect across this
plane will be of a less intensity than that which is directed
toward it.
Since the force of electric attraction that comes into play
between two dissimilar gaseous molecules, lying on opposite
sides of the surface of contact, is of the same intensity for
each molecule, and the molecular repulsion of each gas is the
same, the velocity of diffusion of ack should be inversely pro-
portional to the sone root of the density; which is the fun-
damental law of gaseous diffusion established ‘by Professor
Graham. In the case ‘of two liquids the result is not precisely
the same, since the molecular repulsion may be of different
bet ence the ne forces of
eee gravity is the least, penetrates most rapidly into the
other.
It may be added that the external attraction under considera-
tion is also the force which gives to liquids their solvent power.
14. en two substances combine in several different propor-
tions, the force of affinity is ordinarily weaker in proportion as
the number of primitive molecules (‘atoms’) of the one that
i origi with one of the other is greater. This may be ascribed
the circumstance that each new combination withdraws a
wage 9 of the electric ether from the sides of the molecules on
which union has pesos taken place, and occasions a eval
of the envelopes there. The a of this should generally be
that the molecular attraction subsisting there is weakened, and
combined ; or when the decreasing force of external ——
the envelo s. Thy view of this his sy we may see how it is that
a minute ¢ e in the proportion of one of the constituents may
effect a ace change in thes degree of tenacity, hardness, &c., of
the c poor tne (e. g., different qualities of steel resulting ated
erences in the quantity of carbon that is combined wi
the iron). The phenomena of fermentation may be referred ‘
e same cause.
10 W. A. Norton—Molecular and Cosmical Physics.
15. All the mechanical properties of bodies may be ascribed
to varied values of the quantities ~.. m, and 7? (vol. ii, p. 338),
and to the variations that may occur in these values under dif-
ferent circumstances. These quantities must depend primarily
upon the mass and size of the atoms around which the ethereal
atmospheres and electric envelopes are condensed. The marke
difference in the properties of certain substances which have
nearly the same atomic weight, indicates that atoms of the same
mass may differ in size.
It is to be observed that the same substance may assume
various states of aggregation of its primitive molecules, in which
it exhibits different properties; under varied thermal or other
circumstances of solidification, giving rise to modifications of
the molecular envelopes. One general result may be noted, viz.,
that an aggregation of compound molecules should have less
tenacity than one of primitive molecules of the same substance;
since in the latter case no two molecules can be drawn asunder
sses in
is, are propagated indefinitely as unneutralized heat-pulses.
At the same time a change Dace occurs in the physical con-
ee ee ee Te a eT EE ee ee ee ee
W. A. Norton—Molecular and Cosmical Physics. 11
molecules, which convey impulses of the same intensity as those
expended in arresting the molecular movements. Heat is
developed in this way when bodies are compressed by pressure,
or impact. The heat of friction also originates in this manner;
for between the molecules of the two rubbing surfaces the force
for which the ratio ~ exceeds 69, will, when ie aa give
out heat in this manner; since the mutual attraction of their
envelopes will diminish. We have seen that the same state of
things occurs with india-rubber when it is stretched. In fact,
it appears from the table on page 444 (vol. iii), that all
bodies of matter for which the ratio - is less than 6°9 are in
this t in the same condition with iidia -rubber. There are
certain oe aa reasons for believing that all liquids belong to
this class, on this view the heat of congelation may be as-
cribed to a ie apse of the molecular envelopes resulting from the
expansion of the mass that ensues as the compressive force at
surface of the liquid ceases to operate. Except in the case
of water, the molecules of the liquid being in what has been
e secondary condition, this collapse of the envelopes
will be attended with an augmentation of their attractive
actions and a consequent attraction of the mass; but this aug-
mentation will increase the ratio ~~ and so tend to make the.
12 W. A. Norton—Molecular and Cosmical Physics.
(3.) The evolution of heat may also result from the action of
an electric current,—either compressing the molecular envel-
luminiferous ether, the energy of which is subsequently ab-
ulses.
: 18. All the diverse effective forces in operation, in or upon
bodies, may act as statical forces, or dynamical forces. In the
first case the impulses that fall upon the central atoms of the
primitive molecules are reflected off again, either in electric or
ethereal waves; and no transformation of motion from ethereal
The dynamical energy of any moving mass, of either of the
three varieties of matter, represents the previous expenditure of
a certain amount of ethereal wave-force, and can disappear only
in the act of transformation into an equivalent energy of either
of the other two forms of matter; and each transformation ordi-
narily soon gives place to another, and so never ending cycles
of transformation are
pine through. :
When the pulses of radiant heat fall upon ordinary molecules —
one portion of the wave-force is transmitted, another reflected,
and a third absorbed. ,Absorption is of two kinds, general and
W. A. Norton—Molecular and Cosmical Physics. 13
to the luminiferous ether. The collapse of an envelope is
attended with vibratory movements of its individual atoms both
toward and from the central nucleus, and at right angles to
this line oy hia in rate with the position of the atom in the
ich originate ethereal waves of diverse rates of
Heat ; is eit by good aria te chiefly by waves of
the electric ether passing over from molecular envelope to
another; and hence the same pliynical: “oonititions which favor
the conduction of heat should also favor the conduction of elec-
tricity. Heat may also be slowly and imperfectly conducted
by successive radiations from molecule to molecule through the
a ether, with attendant absorptions by the molecular
velopes ; when the density of the interstitial electric ether is
£66 feeble to admit of direct conduction.
20. What is called the interior ae energy of a body of
matter, in the mechanical theory of heat, is the mechanical or
equivalent thermal energy capable of Weihiy expended, or given
out, in a contraction of the mass after expansion, or in the con-
densation of simple into compound molecules, or in the collapse
nded molecular envelo When the expansion of en-
vate has resulted srecitinr wees from an increased attraction
between contiguous molecular envelopes, superinduced by an
extraneous action (awed ical or the rmal), t the potential heat-
energy absorbed will be eben to the attractive energy ex-
pended. The work done, if any, in this case by the extraneous
action in opposition to molecular resistances is altogether dis-
tinct from this incidental effect. The mechanical stretching of
wires, and liquefaction, with me esa absorption of heat,
may be cited as illustrative e
e hypothesis now in vomue that heat imparts vibratory
movements to the atoms themselves of bodies, involves the
assumption that the vibrations are as rapid, or approximately so,
as the undulations of the heat-waves; which the comparatively
sl ’ transmission of sound- vibrations, and the com-
paratively feeble intensities of the elastic forces called into play
in their transmission, renders in the highest degree improbable.
y £
14 W. A. Norton—Molecular and Cosmical Physics.
21. Waves of light and of the actinic force originate, like
those of heat, in the vibratory ne of the atoms, or
et by the spectroscope, may be chiefly ascribed to diversi-
n the range and rate of variation of the intensity of the
Seen acting on the atoms of the electric envelopes of molecules.
The envelope of the molecule of each substance is in a specia
condition of equilibrium, both asa whole and in oa its ape ;
and any sald rea of it, by heat-waves for example, wi
originate special rates and systems of vibration dacs ose its
rate as a whole, or in subdivisions
of greater or less extent, or in its individual atoms. Stationary
all the conditions ripen cag (8 for the oe of the diverse
in
initial waves with the direct and reflex waves from other con-
tiguous molecular envelopes may also play a certain part in the
2 RT
Physicists have sought for a similar theoretical result by con-
ceiving that the molecules of the vapor or gas are compound ;
but the fact that each incandescent gas when sufficiently com-
ressed gives a continuous spectrum, necessitates the supposi-
tion that the gaseous molecule is composed of an indefinitel
at number of simple molecules, which cannot be admitted.
his conclusion cannot be avoided if we allow that to each rate
of undulation of a ray belongs a particular degree of refrangi-
ity.
93, The img 3 of the “Correlation of Forces,” is implied
in the doctrine of convertible energy that has been briefly set
forth (p. 12). It applies to the dynamic energies that have re-
sulted from the operation of cosmical or molecular forces durin,
certain previous intervals of time. These energies are over an
above the forces attendant at any instant upon the natural
statical condition or tendency of things; and hence are so many
disturbances of the natural equilibrium, and as this always
tends to assert itself, must continually manifest Poaseives in
——— with material movements, and these movements
t be continually undergoing tra nsformations, wherever the
moni masses ( whether of either of the two ethers or of ordin-
ary sone come into contact with others at rest.
24. In the gaseous state of matter the only molecular force in
ee Tg eae ine
W. A. Norton—Molecular and Cosmical Physics. 15
operation is the heat-repulsion—the mutual attractive actions
the molecular envelopes having become insensible. The
law of Mariotte may be deduced from this theoretical principle
in the following manner. Let m be a point in the enclosure
against which the elastic pressure is exerted, and cmd a slightly
divergent cone; all the gaseous particles lying within this cone
will be the centers of heat-waves proceeding in all directions,
and in the thermal equilibrium of the mass each molecule will
radiate an amount of heat equal to that which it receives by
absorption from surrounding molecules. There will acoatiea ae
be a uniform wave-flow of heat from one layer ab of the
SS mass to the next toward m, and thus the quantity of
wave-force that falls on m is the same as if there were an unin-
terrupted flow directly from one layer ab. Now if the density
of the gas be doubled, the number of molecules, or wave-centers
in any layer ab will be oubled, and hence the wave-force
impinging on m will be doubled. The result is the same as if,
for every such slightly divergent cone, there was a line of
aerial particles moving with a certain uniform velocity and im-
pinging upon m; the density of this representative line being
proportional to the density of the gas. is dearer idea
accords with the fndecnatiel hypothesis of the kinetic theory
of gases. The known deviations from the strict i of the
proportionality of the elastic pressure to the density
may be ascribed to the fact that the mutual attractive
action of the molecular envelopes becomes sensible when
the density is greatly increased, and the distance be-
tween the molecules approximates to Od (fig. 4, vol. iui,
. 889 e well known experiment by Ss oule, which
established that a gas expanding into a vacuum expe-
riences no change of temperature, shows that the heat-
energy lost in the expansion of the escaping gas is
restored by the impact of the particles upon the enclos-
as at a should obviously be the result if, as we have
gaseous phenomena are entirely due to the
— of “REIS A heat-repulsion, since the energy
of the repulsive heat-waves expended in imparting
velocity to the particles should be given out again
when the motion of the particles is arrest
It is obvious from the explanation above given of the law 2
Mariotte that if two different gases have the same temperature
they will exert the same elastic outward pressure, provided the
number of their molecules is the same for equal volumes; or,
in other words, at the same temperature and pressure the num
ber of ees: es in equal volumes of the two gases should be
hes sadidie heat of different gases should be the same under
16 E. §. Dana on the Datolite from Bergen Hill, N. J.
specific heats of compound gases, we should at the same time
expect, would be greater than that of a simple gas.
Art. IV.—On the Datolite from Bergen Hill, New Jersey; by
Epwarp 8. Dana. With Plate L
THE Bergen Hill tunnel is famous for the abundance, beauty,
and variety of the minerals which it brought to light. Datolite,
pectolite, calcite, analcite, apophyllite, natrolite, stilbite, and
others were obtained there during its excavation in a degree o
perfection rarely equaled by the pinion of any other local-
ity. The crystallizations of datolite are especially remarkable;
some of the surfaces covered with the brilliant crystals being
eighteen to twenty-four inches in length.*
e crystals are in general not over a third of an inch across,
though they sometimes have a diameter of one inch. Those of
a single specimen have always entire uniformity of habit. The
datolite is associated on different specimens with most of the
other species found at the same locality, but it was not found
possible to obtain any facts which would throw light upon the
influence of the associated minerals on the crystalline form.
Among the varied forms, four different types may be distin-
ished.
a Figure 1 represents a very common and characteristic form.
The crystals here are very thin, wedge-like, and are attached to
the mass of rock approximately by the extremity of the clino-
diagonal, though varying from that of the diagonal terminating
between 2 and 2 on one side, to that between —4 and —4 on
the other. From the position and shape of these crystals, they
offer an unusual number of surfaces for the reflection of the
light, and hence give the specimen a brilliant sparkling aspect,
* — specimens of this kind occur in the collection of Mr. Haines of Eliza-
ee er NEN fee ae Se ee a Pe mma ae e e s Se RN Set Pe ee ee eg ee EN Spee Kw Se Poe fe
E. &. Dana on the Datolite from Bergen Hill, N. J. 17
which serves to distinguish them at a glance from all other
forms. It is always els: no further modifications than those
fgared having been observ
Another and more snteretinig type is shown in figure 2.
Tho crystals here are approximately equal in the three dimen-
sions. The figure shows this form in its simplest condition.
Other planes occur, viz: —2-7; also (as in fig. 3, which is a por-
tion of a crystal with this habit) 2-1, 4-2, 4, 4, 3, 44, -8-2 ; these
the crystals.
c. Higure 14 represents a rare and quite unique form. The
planes —2-2 and 2 are here most prominent, and when the J be-
comes merely a line and 7-2 a minute triangle, as is sometimes
the case, it has the aspect of a rhombohedron. The planes 2-2
and 2-9 are noticeable features of the figure, and are spoken of
more particularly in another place. In addition to the planes
figured, there occur on crystals of the same specimen, 1 very
small, and 7-2, 7-2, 2-2 as mere lines.
d. Another type of form, though not so distinct, is exhibited
in figure 13. Under this type we seldom find the crystals of
two specimens exactly similar, there being a great variation in
the relative sizes and in the number of the P dene A very
complex form of this type is bY. ager in fig. 8. € spec-
ial points to be noted in crysta this habit are: the plane
-2-4, which is often very large and almost invariably etched
and therefore without pote and also the presence of the series
—4-2, —4-4, —4-7 and —6-3, ~6-8, - 6-7 (fig. 4). The planes of the
series last rietioad are very common, the two series frequently
occurring together; and one of them at least is almost always
present with the —2-. This peculiar range of planes above 77
oe not appear to have been met with on crystals from foreign
ocalities.
Under these four distinct types and their modifications, all
the crystals of Bergen Hill datolite observed by the writer (on
over two hundred specimens) can be includ
e following is a list of all the planes obseryed ; in it, those
marked with an asterisk (*) have not "been observed before:
O (top) vertical prisms, q-t, 0-4,* 7-2,* Z + 1-2, ne * 44> or
thodomes, —1-i, —4-2, —2-i, —4-4 8-1; 24; clino-
domes, 4-4," 1-4, 4, *92 i, 4-2; ” hemi- at —4; ay dy
i, $5" —42, 44 6-3," —6-3; 4-2;* _ 6-3 (?), 12-3;
— $3, —8-2, 39 9-2: —4.3,* 33* 23: -& 219.* 3.5,* 9.4% (?),
s* @).+
BA The plane 6-7, found by Hessenberg (Min. Not., rv, where it is designated
#P «) on — from Bergen Hill, I have not observed except on crystals from
Am, Jour. Sou —Tarxp Srrtss, Vou. IV, No. 1.—Juty, 1872.
18 E. &. Dana on the Datolite from Bergen Hill, N. J.
Among the new planes, the following are determined by the
zones in which they occur, as will be seen in the figures:
O-§, 24 (fig. 4), 4-2 (fig. 8), ¢2 (fig. 14), —4-3 (fig. 8,)
3-8 (fig. 12),* 1-2 pe ae Sicchaa 1 and 1-2). OA1-1=171° 1’
(measure ae is e plane 7-2 consists of an oscillatory
combination of 7-7 < 'L
Other new vertical prisms are 7-4 (fig. 11), and 7-3 (fig. 8);
1-4 %-t = 170° 58’ ‘gece 171° 11’); +8 A7¢= 117° 39’
(measured = 117° 51’). 3 (fig. 8) is a new octahedral plane;
OA 2=158° 36’ sabieisiate 158°50’). §-3 has always the shape
and position shown in . figs. 9and 12; t-tr4 -8=108°4’ (measured
=107°-108°) ; Ov §-8=188° 14’ (ere ee 188°). -6-3 (fig.
9) is on the edge between J and —4-2, consequently m=—
n .
SE | }
the case did not admit of determination by measurement ; ta n
is obviously less than 2 and greater than 1, and it is hence very
probably equal to 3 , Which puts it in the same zone with 12-3.
Between 4 a and 22 a rough plane was observed in one
case. Here maa" +43 the plane gives an angle of 165° to 168°
upon 2-2, and consequently n cannot be less than 3.
A remarkable series of planes, usually convex (figs.
17), in the ne zone with —2-2, 2-1 and J (opposite —2- 3
having ins = often takes the place of the clinodome 2-%,
which Boel present is very narrow. The common form of this
+m-n plane (G) is convex ; starting from —2-i, where it makes
on 7-7 an angle of about 95°, it curves around toward J, chang-
ing in the value of m and n constantly till the intersections wit
4-4 and 1 become parallel and it makes an angle on 7-7 of 101°
to 102°30’. This is represented in fig. 17, which is a front view
of the plane. In fig. 14 we have a plane of this zone quite flat
though unpolished, and giving on measurement the angle on t-t
of 94° 80’-96°; its s ce oe is consequently }- 9 (required 95° 42’).
Another plane of this zone, also sometimes occurring alone, as
shown in fig. 16, a direct view of it, makes parallel intersec-
Fis with 4-2 and 1, oe is hence 3 - ¢¢,5-5=100° 57. On
e edge between §-5 and —2-7 the same crystal, a plane
spice , fig. 16) which heat to the other part of @.
Des Cloizeaux gives the planes y, , x, #, %, misapprehending the form which
he tubes frome Doone Mineralogy; placed in the proper position y would become
dh, x, g, ete. y (-2 2), however, he figures also from a crystal of Haytorite.
* In figures 12 and 15 the crystal is represented in eesti gs ses necessary
in order to show well the new planes.
Ah la i a aac a a a ta a NS a ek a a ee
FE. S. Dana on the Datolite from Bergen Hill, N. J. 19
The clinodome 4-2 is also occasionally wholly or in part re-
placed by a convex +m-n plane (r), in the zone that includes 4,
248n' In fig. 6 the
plane (r) occurs, though by the projection its shape is not satis-
factorily shown. Measurement gives for tA71=91° 30/ to 92°
30’ near its intersection with —2-7; but for the larger part of the
plane t,¢-2=97° —98°, and near its intersection with $ TALIS
107° 20’-108°.. The last angle corresponds to the plane 8.3 fh
whose calculated inclination on 7-7 is 107° 36’; while the main
part of the plane has for » probably 4, ret ing 8-4, which in-
clines toward 7-7 at the angle 97° 81’. re may be included
in t the plane ¢ -6, for which the same are is 95° 13’. The
plane 1-2 belongs to the same zone; but its angle with ¢? is
103° 36’, and evidence of its presence ‘was not found, while that
of 2-4 was sustained by the following observation.
4-2 and 4, which plane therefore has m=
Between 1 and —2-7 a convex plane (y fig. 15) occurs,
giving 7-?~7=105°-107°; from the zone we have m= -
—1
This plane is in a zone between 1 and the position of 2-2, while
3-4 is in that between $ and 4-2 The two zones here cross,
and if 7 is the plane common to them, it is $-4. That it is so
is rendered almost certain by its angle of Sie a on 7-7, and
its similarity to t in having a convex su
he convex planes & and t replacing the clinodomes 2-2 and
4-1, sometimes occur together. In fig. 6, the intersections of O
with the two planes t converge ackward, a necessary conse-
quence of the oblique position of 1.
The series of planes above 7-7, -4.i and -6-1 rand the adjoining
In mee to the ae character of different planes, and
their frequency of occurrence, I make a few additional remarks.
The clinodiagonal hemi-octahedral planes and vertical prisms,
almost without exception, are destitute of any polish, and often
eg rough ; this is true also of —2-¢ ae: athe other oe
—6-3 6-2 44,42, and 4 The nr mining planes, sche
cecal exce tions, are well polished, ae ae e presence 0
wavy lines on t the surface in most. cases prevents vey cocce
measurements, O, when of sufficient size to be well observed,
is uniformly striated in two different directions, parallel to its
intersections with the tahedral planes of the m series. In the
crystals from which fig. 8 was drawn, it consisted of an oscilla-
26 E. &. Dana on the Datolite from Bergen Hiil, N. J.
tory combination of O and 3, introducing so much irregularity
as to make 4-7 at pty slightly triangular in shape.
The planes T, 1-1, 4-2, , and 2 are never absent ; ore 2-i, O;
1 are very common; i, are 1, —6-4, —4-2, —4-4, —6-5, —6-3, a
little less common ; 7-3, 7-2, —8-2, 4, (the last generally associated
with the cameras planes), were observed o
tenth of the specimens examined; —1-1, a. 4
2.9, #-4, on one-twentieth ; — 8-7, 7-2, 42, 3 2, 12, 7-3,
are rare; and 7-4, 2-2, —6-3, —4-8, 3-3, are very ra
The following ‘table of all the observed planes, ‘with the let-
tering employed by different authors, is added for the sake of
convenience of reference. Miller's letters are taken from Brooke
and Miller’s Mineralogy (1852); eugene from Pogg. Ann
xciv, 1855; Dauber, from Pogg., Ann., cili, 1858. The planes
in this list that have not been found by the author on the Ber-
gen Hill crystals, have their symbols in parentheses.
fy 24, 12-4,
hae 8, $-5
?
Dana. Mohs. Miller. Schreder. Dauber. Des Cl.
oO 8 a 8 a h}
it b c 6 c p
(new
42 ea F
a} Gregg e}
¢ e d d d a’ e!
iy r r eo ef
12 6 r) | of et
73 (new)
% b 0 b! g’
(—#) ok
—it u y u ot
age v of
2 a x a x o4
(—3i) Pa 0%
—4t ¢ o
—6t pe y 0}
—8i z ¥ 0”
(8%) a?
(64) 2PaHess’b.
2 a at
+i (new)
it o o h§
fi t t t i’
2i g g g g 8
(82) h
4i J m 4 m m
(8) g°
—4 r n _ n dt
(—8) & é
4 n B’ ht
2 € é é e €
4 t 1 9’ d
1 ™ t iy B
$ « wl Kk
+ (new)
qangee win SPT gee Be peel
E. S. Dana on the Datolite from Bergen Hill, N. J. 21
Dana. Mohs. Miller, Schreeder. Dauber. Des Cl.
g
(—$2) ‘ a i (h Gregg)
Zz
=eEer RNR
—82 q g B g
29 h h a h
&
14(2) (new)
In the figures the axes have the positions and ‘the relative
values adopted by Professor Dana, and the system of symbo
employed is also the same. It is to be noticed that Lé
adopted this position of the axes in his work on the Heuland
Cabinet (1837), while other authors have taken 7-1 as O an
made either 2-2 or 4-2 the fundamental prism. This position
has the considerable advantage of giving the planes in vertical
the .
double the length of the vertical axis; the theoretical form
would then approach more closely to the dimensions commonly
occurring in the crystals.
It is worthy of note that the planes of the fundamental plus
octahedrons are represented by the terms in the series ¢ $ $ }
444; and excluding 8-2 and 3-2, two clinodomes mentioned b
Des Cloizeaux, the clinodomes are all of the same series, thoug
wanting thus far the members £ and 4.
In the preparation of this article I have had the free use of
the specimens of datolite in the cabinets of Yale College, Prof.
G. J. Brush, Rev. E. Seymour of New York, and Mr. Benjamin
22 T. B. Brooks—Lower Silurian rocks
Haines of New Jersey. The cabinet of Mr. Haines contains
many hundred specimens, and I am greatly indebted to his
gpeton for the privilege of examining them at my Acct To
eymour and Professor Brush I would also express my
gratefal acknowledgments. The complex form represented in
figure 8 is from a crystal in the cabinet of Mr. Seymour.
New Haven, Ct., May, 1872.
Art. V.—On certain Lower Silurian rocks in St. Lawrence county,
N. Y., which ue e grobaky older than the Potsdam Sandstone ;
by T. ’B. BRoo
A survey of the Caledonia and Keene iron mines at Keene
Station, St. Lawrence county, New York, made by me in the
spring of 1870, developed the following series of sedimentary
conformable rocks, some of which are apparently older than the
Potsdam
In descending order the series is as follows:—Ist, A fine
grained, somewhat friable light Bray, sometimes reddish, ait
stone, which toward the bottom of the bed is often a quartz
conglomerate. It is lighter colored and less firm, but otherwise
resembles the sandstone quarried at Potsdam. The maxi-
mum thickness observed was, say 40 feet, but the line separat-
ing this rock from No. 2 was not always well-defined, and the
surface was lowered from erosion.
This rock is named by Dr. Emmons Potsdam sandstone
page 93, Part rv, Geology of N. Y., where the Caledonia Mine
is described under the name of the “ Parish ore bed.”
2nd, Next below this sandstone is the iron ore formation ;
made up of red hematites, both specular and earthy, together
with irregular lenticular masses of a brownish and very
compact sandstone or quartzite, and a magnesian rock resem-
bling No. 3 of this series. Associated with the ore are the car-
nates of lime and iron and other minerals: carbonaceous mat-
ter is shown by the analyses. This formation varied greatly in
thickness in different localities, from a few feet to at least 40.
The mines which are now extensively worked are in this
formation.
8rd, Under the ore, and forming the foot wall of the mines, is
a soft rock, generally schistoze or slaty, but sometimes massive
in structure, of a green to grayish-green color, a lead
te and rere porous where exposed in outcrops. It is ap-
eyK wes oe rock, containing considerable graphite and
iron regis ne esignated by Dr. Emmons as serpentine, and
:
a
5
“f
Se ne ee Ee ee eee See
in St. Lawrence Co., N. Y. 23
with the overlying ore was regarded by him as eruptive. This
schist, like the ore, varies greatly in thickness, the maximum
observed being at least 90 feet.
4th, Below the schist is a bed of Naar eryevalne pad
stone, white to light gray in color; often friable near the s
face and weathering toadark color. It holds numerous aryaute
of bronze colored mica and, still more abundantly, graphite in
thin scales. The thickness of this formation is not less than
250 feet.
5th, Is a sandstone similar in character to No. 1, described above.
The thickness ‘as uncertain, but one outcrop is exposed not
less than 15 fe Dr. Emmons does not mention this rock, and I
do not thinke a8 observed it, or he certainly would have men-
tioned it in connection with his i igneous theory for the origin of
limestones, inasmuch as it separates two deposits of his “ primi-
~ limestone.’
, Is a granular crystalline limestone closely resembling
i 4 before describe d, but differing in containing in places
irregular beds or veins of granite, composed of a white feldspar
and quartz. A mineral resembling tremolite was observed in this
formation. This association of limestone and granite is fully
described by Dr. Emmons (pages 24 and 338 and 340), and
seems to have afforded him the best arguments for his peculiar
views regarding the origin of the limestone. The thickness of
this bed could not be even approximately determined ; it is
certainly thicker than the limestone already described.
my survey was purely economic, having reference to
explorations for iron ore, not much attention was paid to the
thickness of the rocks below the ore. I consider that the series
described has a minimum thickness of 700 feet, and probably
much greater. raga bag this whole series and = bawnding
not seen. This gneiss is a part of the great azoic area of north-
ern New York, and is colored Laurentian on the geological
map of Canada. It is lithologioally a totally different rock from
the granite described above in No. 6 as associated with the marble,
although Dr. Emmons seems to give them the same origin and
e. No limestone was seen in it,—the feldspar was reddi
and it always contained mica and often hornblende.
This series of sandstones, limestones, and ferruginous and
magnesian schists was not found complete, so as to display
unmistakably the sequence of the beds except on one section,
1. ¢@., through the west corner of the Caledonia mine lot :—and
there the 3nd and 3rd members were of less than usual thick-
ness. The Laurentian gneiss was not seen on this section. At
the Kearny mine the members of the series from 1 to 4 inclusive
24 T. B. Brooks—Lower Silurian rocks
are well shown. At the Caledonia mine the 1st, 2nd and 8rd
are well developed, as is also the case southeast of the Keene.
At this latter pomt the magnesian schist No. 3 is seen in such
close unc. to the gneiss as to render it probable that beds
4 e wanting. This could be explained by supposing
eet Samegulanty in the bottom of the sea in which they were
e
Ihe whole series are folded, presenting several anticlinal and
synclinal axes which run rudely parallel with the edge of the
Laurentian area, i. e., northeast and southwest. On one sectiona
half-mile long across the Caledonia and Kearney mines, no less
than six such axes were observed. Prof. Dana oo -
rocks of the Potsdam epoch in N ew York as having usual
gentle dip or as nearly horizontal.” poy neice tote nee Bi not
embrace the rocks at this locality. e place an outcrop of
magnesian schist (No. 8) has a dip of 80°, indicating a very
sharp fold. side from this, the inclinations observed varied
from 0° to 40°. The upper sandstone has been eroded from
considerable part of the area about the mines, exposing the
ower rocks and affording a good st gag for stratigraphical
study. The surface is quite hilly, the highest point ob-
served being 120 feet above the valley at its ‘pile
As has been remar r. Emmons describes formations
Nos. 1, 2, and 3 in Geology of New York, Part Iv, page 93,
under the cay tacts names of “ Potsdam Sandstone,” - Specu-
lar Iron Ore “Serpentine.” He regards the last two as
well as the Sean which underlies them as eruptive, and
oes not seem to have observed the sandstone which divides
the two limestone beds. The planes of bedding were occasion-
ally obscure in the magnesian rock and sandstones, often so in
the iron ore and marbles; but taken as a whole they cannot
uppermost sandstone No. 1, « Potsdam,” as he has re cael
done, and if he begins the Potsdam epoch at this locality wit
the bottom of this sandstone, which is unquestionably his inten-
tion, then the rock beds 2 to 6 inclusive are older than this so-
called base of the Paleozoic column, This view would
ibly make them the equivalents of the Taconic system of
Emmons, and it is strengthened by the similarity in general
lithological character. number and order of the beds between
this series and that system as described, in Geology of New
York, Part Iv, pages 138 to 144. It is hardly to be supposed,
however, that Hesane would have passed over so promi-
nent a suggestion ‘of his favorite system without recognizing it.
sa
in St. Lawrence Co., N. ¥. 25
There is no doubt but that his fis views regarding the
rigin of limestones stood somewhat in the way of his seeing
all the facts that this interesting dumtiew exhibits. His section
of the Parish ore bed, page 93, ote Iv, does not represent the
facts now to be observed. I found on magnesian schist
where he has marked gneiss. It should be remarked, however,
that there has been a large amount of work done of late years,
revealing many additional facts.
r. Emmons gives 60 to 300 feet as the minimum and maxi-
mum thicknesses of the Potsdam sandstone in northern New
York, and it has been described as diminishing in some in-
stances to 20 or 80 feet. The prevailing rock observed in this
region seems to have been a Latinas d sandstone, frequently
having a conglomerate as its lower member. Nor have any
rocks of different lithological character been ascribed to this
ab in the region in question; although partly calcareous
ers and even beds of true limestone have been observed in
the upper rocks of this period in the northwest. The rocks I
have described, therefore, have apparently too great a thickness —
and show too wide a variation in lithological.character to be
regarded as the equivalents of the Potsdam. Some forms,
obtained from a calcareous layer the base of the upper sand-
stone, which I thought might be organic, were pronounced
by Dr. Newberry to be concretions. The ee ig of graphite
was the only evidence of organic life obser
The Potsdam quarries are only 35 wiles ‘northeasterly from
the Rossie mines, and the country between was examine y
mmons. He may have traced the sandstone throug
stratigraphically. My own reconnaissance of this country leads
me to believe that this could easily be accomplished. Should
it be done, a point of considerable interest which would be
incidentally settled is this:—Does the Potsdam sandstone in
this 2yov eaycae his places, decidedly gneissic in character?
y own hasty observations at the Sterling and Tate ore beds
leads me to believe that it ‘does: if so, the Tate bed de-
scribed by Dr. Emmons, pages 95 and 846, as being overlaid by
gneiss, may be found to be the equivalent of the Rossie beds,
which I believe to be “the ease. ‘The ores are certainly very
similar. This Tate bed confirmed Dr. aA and with go
reason, in his view, that the iron ores were of “primitive age,”
lying either in or immediately on top of the great gneissic
seri
AE bearing on this subject, I would mention that the iron
ores of the Siirernee: district in Crawford and Phelps Co.,
o., bear a close resemblance to those of Rossie, and work
equall well in the furnace. The Missouri ore contains con-
siderable yellow ochre, which is less abundant at Rossie; but
26 A. W. Wright—Production of Ozone with Hleciricity.
the specular and earthy red hematites are nearly identical -
and unlike any other iron ore I have seen. A sandstone associ-
ated with the Missouri ores is very similar to the Pots-
dam in lithological character, and the series is, I believe,
regarded by the Missouri geologists as of Lower Silurian age.
ron ores are described as occurring in the Potsdam period of
Canada, but I do not know of any ore in the United States
which the Geological Reports assign to that period.
Art. VL—Ona simple Apparatus for the Production of Ozone
with Electricity of high tension; by Prof. ArnrHur W.
RIGHT.
EXPERIMENT has shown that in the production of ozone by
electricity the maximum amount of oxygen is ozonized by the
silent or glow discharge, and most of the forms of apparatus by
which this is effected are contrivances by which oxygen is made
to flow slowly through a space traversed by such a discharge.
n y. Babo’s apparatus, as well as in those of Siemens and
Houzeau, the metallic conductors are separated by glass and a
stratum of air. By inductive action of the charged metallic
surfaces the intervening air becomes charged with electricity
oppositely upon its two sides, and simultaneously with the
discharge of the metallic terminals, through the wire of the
coil, a discharge takes place through the air, not in the form
of sparks, but diffusely, producing a glow of purplish light,
visible only in the dark.
_ These apparatus succeed best with electricity of compara-
tively low tension. In using the Holtz’s electro-machine with
them the discharge is apt to occur chiefly in the form of sparks
through the air, or it may even traverse and perforate the glass,
and the form of the apparatus must be varied to give the best
results.
_ When the poles of the machine itself are separated to a suffi-
cient distance the electricity passes between ee either in the
rm of a diffuse brush, spanning the whole interval, or with a
very minute brush upon the negative pole, and a glow upon
the positive, the intermediate space not being visibly luminous.
is is the so-called dark or silent discharge, exhibiting the
phenomena of the electric shadow when suitable objects are
interposed, as described in a former paper.* When this occurs
the strong odor shows that a considerable amount of the atmos-
pheric oxygen is converted into ozone.
* This Journal, II, xlix, p. 381, and III, i, p. 437.
A. W. Wright—Production of Ozone with Electricity. 27
an annular space of some two or three millimeters
breadth around it. The gas is admitted through one of the
branch tubes and escapes from the other, after having passed
through the whole length of the tube.
n using the apparatus the wires must be connected with the
poles of the machine in such a manner that the disk becomes the
hegative terminal, as this arrangement gives the greatest degree
of expansion and diffuseness to the current. On turning the
machine, and adjusting the ball and disk to a proper distance,
a nebulous aigrette surrounds the latter, quite filling the inter-
val between it and the wall of the tube, while the part of the
tube between the disk and ball is crowded with innumerable
hazy streams converging upon the positive pole, or simply caus-
ing the latter to be covered with a faint glow. A current of
air or oxygen sent into the tube must pass through this, and
ozone is very rapidly produced, and in great quantity. The
condensers are of course not used with the machine, when this
apparatus is employed.
ere appears to be an advantage in causing the oxygen to
pass from the negative toward the positive within the tube, for
the gas through which the discharge pone is transported in
the contrary direction, as may be readily seen on bringing a
candle flame between the au Hh of the machine, or causing a
in column of smoke to rise through the polar interval. The
flame and the smoke are deflected, and stream off toward the
Negative pole. If the gas should be admitted in the direction
mentioned, { there would be a tendency to obstruct its flow some-
28. A. W. Wright—Production of Ozone with Electricity.
but required a considerably longer time for the change.
WwW chénbein’s test solution is employed the deep blue
color is immediately produced, but the solution is too thick to
work well if the starch has been heated considerably, or for a
long time, in making it. A better proportion is to take one
part of potassic iodide by weight, ten parts of starch, and five
thousand parts of water. This forms a milky solution, suffi-
ciently mobile to mix well when the ozonized air bubbles
through it. When 100 cubic centimeters of this solution were
used, and air passed through the apparatus as before, the blue
color appeared at once on = uaptin of electricity, and in 30
seconds it was deeply colored.
ith dry oxygen the effects were much more rapid and re-
markable. 100 cubic centimeters of the solution were used,
as before. The instant the machine was put in action the
liquid about the end of the delivery tube became deep blue,
and in from ten to fifteen seconds the whole had acquired a
uniform and intense blue color.
The summer moisture having interfered somewhat with the
effective working of the electro-machine, there has been no
Opportunity to determine the percentage of ozone produced in
this manner, but it appears to be very large. When dry oxy-
gen is passed through the tube very slowly, the issuing gas
when inhaled produces a painful burning sensation in the lungs,
and causes violent coughing, which persists for a considerable
me.
When oxvgen is used it is found that the electrodes must
be separated to a much greater distance than is necessary for
air, otherwise x etal toe and destroy a large proportion of the
a ormed.
were separated about 11% centimeters. When the tube was
filled with air and the poles were 7 or 8 centimeters apart the
A. W. Wright on the Action of Ozone, ete. 29
discharge was of the silent kind, but on admitting oxygen it
immediately took the form of direct sparks.
The quantity of the solution used ih these experiments was
much greater than would be needed in order to exhibit the
characteristic reactions of ozone to an audience of moderate size.
Art. VIL—On the Action of Ozone upon Vulcanized Caoutchouc ;
by Prof’ ArTHUR W. WRIGHT.
_ IN using the Holtz’s electro-machine, in the summer season,
it is often very difficult to make it retain any considerable
charge, or even to keep up its action for more than a
minutes. The ebonite insulators are found to have lost in a
e degree their insulating power, and to have become con-
the warmer portion of the year unused. The surface of the
ebonite becomes hygroscopic, condensing upon itself a large
amount of moisture, the accumulated liquid being sometimes
So abundant as to trickle down in drops.
aving noticed on one occasion that this liquid had an acid
I was led to examine it more closely, and the ordinary
tests very speedily showed it to be sulphuric acid. Its pres-
ence was a sufficient explanation of the defective insulation.
Similar deposits of moisture were found upon the ebonite
ty of two induction coils some time after they had been
As nothing containing sulphur had been used about the
apparatus, the acid was ovidasie derived from the ebonite
self The first thought was that the material had been heated
in the process of vulcanization sufficiently to oxidize the sul-
hur; but as the sulphurous oxide, if thus formed, would be
30 A. W. Wright on the Action of Ozone, ete.
attacked and quickly perforated by it. It seemed most prob-
able then that the acid was the result of the action of the ozone
upon the insulators, and experiments were made which entirely
confirmed this supposition.
To the exit-tube of the ozonizing apparatus described in the
previous paper was attached one end of a vulcanized rubber
tube a few inches long, the other end being slipped upon the
glass tube of a small wash-bottle containing some thirty or
forty cubic centimeters of water. Air was slowly driven
through the apparatus, and, having been strongly ozonized by
the action of the electricity, bubbled up through the water.
is was continued for an hour and a half. At the end of
this time common air was passed through the apparatus to dis-
pe the ozone left in it, the tubes were removed, and the
*
time afterward, there was an unmistakable odor of sulphur-
slightest evidence of any action upon the sulphur could be
detected is was what might have been expected, for as the
air often contains a small percentage of ozone, sulphur exposed
to it would undergo slow alteration, with loss of weight, and it
does not appear that anything of the kind has ever been
observed.
It is evident that while the ebonite is undergoing decomposi-
tion by the ozone, the oxygen combines with the issuing sul-
phur to form sulphurous oxide, which with the atmospheric
moisture produces sulphurous acid, this in turn being converted
into sulphuric acid by the further action of the ozone. The
J. D. Dana— Oceanic Coral Island Subsidence. 31
absorption of moisture from the atmosphere by the sulphuric
acid produces the dew-like deposits observed.
The deleterious effect upon the insulators can be remedied
by neutralizing the acid with some substance which will not
form a hygroscopic compound or essentially lessen the insulat-
ing power of the ebonite. I have used oxide and carbonate
of magnesium with very good effect. A little of either of
these substances in fine powder is sprinkled upon a soft cloth
or piece of chamois leather and rubbed over the insulators.
T € excess is removed with a wet cloth, and the surface, after
drying, cleaned and polished by rubbing with a soft woolen
cloth very slightly moistened with carbonic di-sulphide. As
the ebonite is attacked by the latter substance, care should be
served, in employing it, to use only so much as is needed to
facilitate the polishing process without injuring the surface.
The ebonite may be somewhat discolored by these operations,
but the color cah be restored by rubbing with a little oil, or
will return of itself after a time.
good results. On one occasion, early last autumn, when the
electro-machine had not been used for some months, the sparks
under-water prolongation, longer than that above water: the
line of the Hawaiian Islands, for example, which has a am ce" of
Only four hundred miles from Hawaii to Kauai, and five
hundred and thirty to Bird Island, the western rocky islet of
the group, but stretches on westward, as the coral registers show,
* From the closing chapter of the writer's work on Corals and Coral Islands,
(Pp. 364-372), recently published by Dodd & Mead, New York.
82 J. D. Dana—Oceanie Coral Island Subsidence.
even to a distance of two thousand miles from Hawaii, or as:
far as from New York to Salt Lake City; and how much
farther is unknown, as the line of coral islands here passes the
boundary of the coral reef seas, or the region where coral
records are possible. 2
ther ranges of submerged summits are shown to extend
through the whole central Pacific, even where not a rocky peak
remains above the surface; for all the coral islands from the
eastern Paumotus to Wakes Island, near long. 170° E. and lat.
19° N., north of the Ralick and Radack (or Marshall) groups,
are in linear ranges: and they have, along with the equally
linear ranges of high islands just south, a nearly uniform trend,
curving into northwest and north-northwest at the western ex-
tremity. The coral islands consequently cap the summits of
linear ranges of elevations, and all these linear ranges together
constitute a grand chain of heights, the whole over five
thousand miles in length. Thus, the coral islands are records
of the earth’s submarine orography, as well as of slow changes
of level in the ocean’s bottom.
This coral island subsidence is an example of one of the
great secular movements of the earth’s crust. The axis of the
subsiding area* has a length of more than six thousand miles
scoquel to one-quarter of the circumference of the globe; and
the breadth, reckoning only from the Sandwich Islands to the
Friendly Group (or to Tongatabu) is over twenty-five hundred
miles, thus equalling the width of the North American con-
tinent. A movement of such extent, involving so large a part
of the earth’s crust, could not have been a local change of level,
but one in which the whole sphere was concerned as a unit ;
for all parts, whether participating or not, must have in some
way been in sympathy. with it.
his subsidence was in progress, in all probability, during
the Glacial era, the thickness of the reefs proving that in their
origin they run back through a very long age, if not also into
the Tertiary. It was a downward movement for the tropical
Pacific, and perhaps for the warmer latitudes of all the oceanic
areas, while the more northern continental lands, or at least
those of North America, were making their upward movement,
preparatory to or during that era of ice.
he subsidence connected with the origin of coral islands
and barrier reefs in the Pacific has been shownt+ to have
amounted to several thousands of feet, perhaps full ten thou-
sand. And, it may be here repeated that, although this sounds
large, the change of level is not greater than the elevation whi
* The position of this area is stated on page 328 of the volume on Corals and
Coral Islands.
~ + Ibid, p. 329.
J. D. Dana— Oceanic Coral Island Subsidence. oo
the Rocky Mountains, Andes, Alps and Himalayas have each
experienced since the close of the Cretaceous era, or the early
Tertiary ; and perhaps it does not exceed the upward bulging
in the Glacial era of part of northern North America.
The author has presented reasons for believing* that in this
Glacial era the watershed of Canada, between the River St.
Lawrence and Hudson’s Bay, was raised at least 5,500 feet
above its present level (1,500 feet); and that this plateau thus
elevated was the origin of the great glacier which moved south-
eastward over New England. This region is the summit of the
eastern arm of the great V-shaped Azoic area of the continent,
The idea that the two arms of the great Azoic V were raised
together, is not without some support. For the courses of the
two were the courses of great continental uplifts or movements,
4gain and again, through the successive subsequent ages; an
the present outline of the continent is but the final expression
of the great fact; moreover, the elevations parallel to the
western arm of the V have been much the greatest. Even the
exceptional courses, such as the nearly north and south trend
of the Green Mountains, were marked out first in the Azoic,
ore. It is therefore reasonable that, late in geological his-
tory, during the Glacial era, after the great mountain chains of
* This Journal, IIT, ii, 1871.
AM. Jour. 8ct.—Turep Series, Vou. IV, No. 19.—Jcxy, 1872.
3
84 J. D. Dana-—— Oceanic Coral Island Subsidence.
the continent had been made and raised to their full height,
and the surface crust thickened over all the continent, except
that of the Azoic nucleus, by successive beds to a thickness of
thousands of feet, even thirty-five thousand by the close of the
Paleozoic along the Appalachians, and probably much beyond
this on the Pacific border; and-when these thick sediments had
in many regions been stiffened by crystallization or metamor-
hism; I say it is reasonable that, finally, changes of level,
through the working of the old system of forces, should again
have affected most the old nucleal Azoic area of the continent,
where there had been no thickening except what had taken
a internally ; and that, if one arm of the V, that along the
anadian watershed, were raised at this time—as the facts
prove—the other, northwestern in trend, should also have been
raised, and to a greaterextent. This is at least probable enough
to become a question for special examination over the region.
These northern continental upward movements which intro-
duced the Glacial era, carrying the Arctic far toward the
tropics, may have been a balance to the downward oceanic
movements that resulted in the formation of the Pacific atolls.
hile the crust was arching upward over the former (not ris-
ing into mountains, but simply arching upward), it may have
been bending downward over the vast central area of the great
n.
The changes which took place, cotemporaneously, in the
Atlantic tropics, are very imperfectly recorded. The Bahamas
show by their form and position that they cover a submerged
land of large area stretching over six hundred miles from north-
west to southeast. The long line of reefs and the Florida Keys,
trending far awa i
dence that this Florida region participated in the downward
banks, and also the blankness of the ocean’s surface, all appear
to bear evidence to a great subsidence.
The peninsula of Florida, Cuba, and the Bahamas look, as
they lie together, as if all were once part of a greater Florida or
southeastern prolongation of the continent. The northwestern
and southwestern trends, characterizing the great features of the
American continent, run through the whole like a w and
woof structure, binding them together in one system ; the former
trend, the northwest, existing in Florida and the Bahamas, and
J. D. Dana—Oceanic Coral Island Subsidence. 85
the main line of Cuba; and the latter course, the west-southwest,
mm cross lines of islands in the Bahamas (one at the north ex-
tremity, another in the line of Nassau, and others to the south-
east), in the high lands of northwestern and southeastern Cuba,
and in the Florida line of reefs, and even further, in a sub-
merged ridge between Florida and Cuba. This combination of
the two continental trends shows that the lands are one in sys-
tem, if they were never one in continuous dry land.
We cannot here infer that there was a reguiar increase of
subsidence from Florida eastward, or that Florida and Cuba
participated in it equally with the intermediate or adjoining
seas ; for the facts in the Pacific have shown that the subsiding
oceanic area had its nearly parallel bands of greater and less
subsidence, that areas of greatest sinking alternated with others
of less, as explained on page 828; and that the groups of high
islands are along the bands of least sinking. So in the Atlantic,
the subsidence was probably much greater between Florida and
uba than in the peninsula of Florida itself; and greater along
the Caribbean Sea parallel with Cuba, as well as along the
ei have taken place about it; for it is not natural for
an |
Wenty miles to the southwest-by-west from the Bermudas,
there are two submerged banks, twenty to forty-seven fathoms
under water, showing that the Bermudas are not completely
alone, and demonstrating that they cover a summit in a range
of heights; and it may have been a long range.
. ,+D the Indian ocean, again, there is evidence that the coral-
island subsidence was one that affected the oceanic area more
than the adjoining borders of the continent, and most, the cen-
tral parts of the ocean. For, in the first place, the Archipelago
of the Maldives narrows and deepens to the southward. Fur-
ther, the large Chagos Group, lying to the south of the Maldives,
“8 remarked upon by Darwin, contains but very little dry lan
M any of its extensive reefs, while some of them, including the
Great Chagos Bank, are sunken atolls. Again, still other large
reefs n ly , lie to the southwest of the Chagos Group;
while Keeling’s is another outlying atoll southwest of southern
Sumatra and far ont toward mid-ocean.
86 J. D. Dana—Oceanie Coral Island Subsidence.
The probability is, therefore, that both the central Atlantic
and Indian Oceans were regions of this subsidence, like the
central Pacific, and that the absence of islands over a large
part of their interiors may be a consequence of it. rate of
sinking exceeding five feet in a thousand years (if my estimate
from the growth of corals is right) would have buried islands
and reefs together in the ocean; while, with a slower rate, the
reefs might have kept themselves at the water’s surface. So
small may have been the difference of rate in the great move-
ment that covered the Pacific with coral islands, but left the
Indian Ocean a region of comparatively barren waters, with
some “half-drowned” atolls, and the central Atlantic almost
wholly a blank.
While thus seeming to prove that all the great oceans have their
buried lands, we are far from establishing that these lands were
oceanic continents. For as the author has elsewhere shown, the
rofoundest facts in the earth’s history prove that the oceans
ocean that are not of coral origin.
The course of argument leads us to the belief that a very
large number of islands, more than has been supposed, lie bur-
ied in the ocean. Coral islands give us the location of many of
these lands; but still we know little of the extent to which the
earth’s ranges of heights, or at least of volcanic peaks, have dis-
appeared through oceanic subsidence. Recent dredgings and
soundings have proved that the bottom of the oceanic basin
has little of the diversity of mountain chains and valleys that
prevail over the continents; and, through this observation (and
also by the discovery that some ancient types of animal life,
supposed to have been long extinct, are perpetuated there), they
have afforded new demonstration of the proposition, above sta-
ted, that the oceans have always been oceans. But while the facts
do not imply the existence deep in the ocean of many granitic
mountain chains, they do teach that there are long ranges,
or lines, of volcanic ridges and peaks, and some of these es
be among the discoveries of future dredging expeditions.
range of deep-sea cones, or sunken voleanic islands, would be
as interesting a discovery as a deep-sea sponge or coral, even if
it should refuse, excepting perhaps a mere fragment, to come to
the surface in the dredge.
e may also accept, with some confidence, the conclusion
that atolls and barrier reefs originated in the same great bal-
ance-like movement of the earth's crust that gave elevation and
cold, in the Glacial era, to high-latitude lands. If so, the
tropics and the colder latitudes were performing their several
‘
A. M. Mayer—Boundary of a Wave of Conducted Heat. 87
works simultaneously in preparation for the coming era; and
it is a gain to us in our contemplations, that we hence may bal-
ance the beauty and repose of the tropics, through all the pro-
gressing changes, against the prolehged scenes of glacial deso-
lation that prevailed over large portions of the continents.
Art. IX.—On a precise Method of tracing the Progress and of
determining the Boundary of a Wave of Conducted Heat; b
LFRED M. Mayer, Ph.D., Professor of Physics in the
Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J.
_ In 1870 Meusel experimented on the formation of double
todides, and on the remarkable changes of color produced in
these bodies by heat.* He prepared a double iodide of copper
that experimented on by me) turns to a deep chocolate brown
on heating to about 70° ©. In order forcibly to exhibit this
change of color, Boettger moistened the iodide with weak gum
Water, and painted it on paper; on heating the latter, the
change of color is produced, and on cooling, the iodide regains
its former brilliancy.
Dr. G. F. Barker had the kindness to present me with a card
So prepared, and on experimenting with it I soon perceived the
valuable means it afforded of tracing the progress and of deter-
mining the boundary of a wave of sontacred heat. To Dr.
ker I am also indebted for the iodide used in the experi-
ments I here present.
The first use I made of this substance was to track the heat
conducted by bars and plates of metal,+ and the sharpness of
the boundary of the colors instigated me to test the value of
18 mode of experiment, by applying it to a determination of
the elliptical contour of the isothermal of conduction, in the
Principal section of a quartz crystal. : Stee
harmont, in his beautiful researches on this subject (Ann.
de Ch. et de Ph., 3¢ S., t. xxi, xxii), has carefully determined
the ratio of the axes of this elliptical figure, by coating a thin
Sngitudinal section of the crystal with wax, and leading
through it a silver wire, by means of which heat was brought
- Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges, iii, 123, 1870. Bul. Soc. Oh., H, xiii, 220, 1870. J. Pr.
Ti. ii, 136, Aug, 1870.
He iodide is decomposed by contact with certain metals; these should be
‘balan With a film of collodion, or electrotyped with copper before applying the.
88 A. UM. Mayer—Boundary of a Wave of Conducted Heat.
Exp. Major Axis. Minor Axis. Ratios.
] 12°50 9°75 1°28
% 11°60 8°50 1°35
3 10°00 7°50 1°33
4 12°00 9°00 1°33
5 13°75 10°00 1°37
6 18°00 14°00 1°29
7 15°00 12°00 1°25
8 9°75 7°50 1°30
1°31 Mean Ratio.
Sénarmont, in the above experiments, used every precaution
to attain accurate results. He screened the plate from draughts
of air and from radiations; kept the plate horizontal and_fre-
ee. rotated it around its heated wire. After the ellipse
had become constant in its form, he allowed the plate to cool,
and then measured the axes of the ellipse by means of a
micrometer.
In the experiments which follow, I used a quartz: plate
27™" long, 22™™ wide, and whose thickness was 1:2™™. Its
center of figure was pierced by a hole 1:°25™™ in diameter,
through which nied the <ainionl conical end of a silver
wire. The iodide was made oa a paint with weak gum
water, and in aa 1; 2, abd 4 was applied to the
surface of the te by a camel's fait pencil. In experiments
5, 6, 7 and 8, the fotics plan was adopted of flowing the iodide
over the plate, and allowing the water spontaneously
to evaporate. Thus we obtain a smooth, evenly distributed
coating, erilg a sharp outline to the elliptical figure of the con-
ducted The plate was screened from radiations of the
flame which heated the wire, but was not shielded from
currents of air, nor was unequal: radiation of the iodide specially
prevented. The method of measurement was as follows: after
the ellipse was well formed, and of permanent ew the
extremities of its longer and of its shorter axes were mar
scratching through the iodide with a very slender steel aC
pen plate was then removed, and the lengths of the axes deter-
ined by means of dividers and a scale divided into half
millimetea
A. M. Mayer—Boundary of a Wave of Conducted Heat. 39
Exp. Major Axis. Minor Axis. Ratios.
25
] 12° 9 1°35
2 14°0 10°5 1°33
3 17°75 13°5 1°31
4 18°25« 14°0 1°30
5 12°75 9°5 1°34
6 12°8 9°5 1°34
7 12°8 9°5 1°34
8 16°4 11°8 1°38
1°33 Mean Ratio.
An opinion on the relative values of the two modes of ex-
perimenting can only be formed from a discussion of the two
Series of observations by the method of least squares. It is
true that the series are not as extended as one would wish for
the application of this rocess, yet its results are equally fair
for both. We thus have found that the—
Probable error of a single determi
“ faa
fratios in S.’sseries is 0267
cc “ce M.’s 3 ‘0170
ns in the mean ratio “e S's = 0004
& * Oo4, Mie ah. 3000
From these figures we infer that Sénarmont’s ratio is barely
true to a hundredth, while my result can be relied on to that
figure, and if my measures had been made with a micrometer
microscope, on a plate protected from unequal radiation, and
shielded from currents of air, I would have obtained a ratio
reliable to the third decimal place. :
© the higher ratio of my determination I attach no impor-
tance; I attribute it to the peculiarity of this particular crystal,
for several measures on this plate, with a waxed surface, ‘gave
pone
40 A. M. Mayer—Boundary of a Wave of Conducted Heat.
were then obtained for each fixed temperature. Hach deflection
given below is the mean of three experiments.
_ Temp. Lamp-black. Iodide. Ratio of Deflections. Changes in Color.
60° 18°75 = =—-:13°75 ree
« § Cherry red, and turning in
° 2.07% * pa > foo)
ia gd a oa 1 spots to chocolate color.
Dark red, with spots of
0 . . 7 * >
Rae aah! ides 3) Th oy ecslake coke,
2 : ‘ , Whole surface of a deep
70 24°0 16°87 r= 0 eo |
72°: 260 17°62 pee 6 Deep purplish brown.
75° 26°25 18°62 Ba we
100° 45°0 30°5 ee an 5 3 e
The last experiment, in which the temperature of the surface
was 100°, gave deflections so far exceeding those produced before
that I sought to pense them comparable by removing the hot
water cube to a greater apt from the thermo-battery,
when I obtained the following ra
Temp. Lamp-black. Iodide. Ratio.
100° 20° 13°41° L367
The result was the same ratio as apa ee obtained.
These
?
light, does not appear to have any action on its power of
radiating the rays of heat of low intensity. I intend, however,
to return to this investigation, provided with an apparatus
giving the differential actions of two cubes, and having a -
carefully calibrated galvanometer, and with this arrangement to
test the reflecting as well as the radiating power of this and
other iodides.
Several applications of this iodide for showing elevations of
temperature will naturally present themselves; for example,
Foucault's experiment of the heating of a copper disc, when
rotating in the magnetic field, can “be exhibited to a large
audience by painting the dise with this iodide; on the dise
attaining 70° C., the brilliant scarlet will ehange to a deep
. brown, to regain {its former brilliant hue on coolin
A more useful application may be made of this, or of several
other more appropriate metallic compounds, by painting them
on the pillow-blocks, and other parts of machines which are liable to
injurious heating from friction. Thus the machinist can, from
the colors of these paints, ascertain the temperature of these
sometimes inaccessible parts of moving machines.
May 20, 1872.
TL. S. Hunt on the Criticisms of Prof, Dana. 41
Art. X.—Remarks on the late Criticisms of Prof. Dana; by
T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S.
In this Journal for February last (p. 86) Prof. Dana has
criticized certain points in my address “On the Geognosy of
the Appalachians and the Origin of Crystalline Rocks,” given in
August, 1871, at Indianapolis, before the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science. I am charged by him
with rejecting, for many mineral silicates, the view that they
case we may say, with Prof. Warrington Smyth, that in these
intermediate forms “lie the materials for a history ;” while we
venture, with him, to express a doubt whether, from a series of
Specimens supposed to show a transition from chrysolite to
Serpentine, or from hornblende to chlorite, “we are obliged to
Conclude that there has been, historically speaking, an actual
transition from the one to the other.” [See his anniversary
1867 |" as president of the Geological Society of London, in
Prof. Dana says that Scheerer is the only one who shares my
Peculiar views on this question. I have, however, asserted in
and shall endeavor to make good my assertion. In his essay
on P seudomorphs, published in 1859 [Ann. des Mines, V, xvi,
317-392], Delesse begins his argument by remarking that since,
'N Some cases, a mineral is found to be surrounded by another
Clearly r sulting from its alteration (as for example anhydrite
Y Sypsum), certain mineralogists have supposed that wherever
one mineral encloses another there has been epigenesis or pseu-
domorphous alteration, Such, he says, may sometimes be th
case, but it is easy to see that it is not so habitually. A crys-
42 T. 8. Hunt on the Criticisms of Prof. Dana.
tallized mineral species frequently includes a large and even a
predominating portion of another, and the combination is then
considered by many as an example of partial pseudomorphous
alteration. In such instances, remarks Delesse, the question
arises whether we have to do with the results of envelopment,
or of chemical alteration ; to resolve which it becomes necessary
to study carefully the pro oblem of envelopment. He then pro-
ceeds to show that the enveloped substance is, in some cases,
erystalline (and arranged either symmetrically or asymmetri-
cally with regard to the enveloping mass), and in other cases
amorphous, and enclosed like the sand-grains which predominate
in the calcite crystals of Fontainebleau: The difficulty im
deciding whether we have to do with envelopment or with
epigenesis increases when the enveloped mineral becomes so
abundant as to obscure the enveloping species, or when it
becomes mixed with it in so intimate a manner as to seem one
with the latter, (se fondre insensiblement avec lui). The propor-
tions of the enveloped and the enveloping mineral, we are
told, may so far renee that the one or the other is no longer
recognizable. - ‘As the forces which downing erystallization
have a great asides the ae mineral is =
pages iy 339, 341, 53].
Our author then proceeds to tell us that having carefully-
idions in numerous specimens, the supposed mica-pseudo-
morphs. of iolite, andalusite, sig pyroxene, hornblende, ete.,
he regards them, a as in all cases, examples of envelopment, and
expresses the opinion that we must omit from our lists a great
number of the so-called pseudomorphous minerals, especially
among the silicates. The final result of the process of envelop-
ment is, according to Delesse, this—to give rise to mixed min-
eral cs owing their external _ = at crystallizing
T. &. Hunt on the Oriticisms of Prof. Dana. 43
are in reality examples of isomorphism” [pages 364, 365
Referring to the well-known investigations of Mitscherlich
9 the crystallizing together, in all proportions, of isomor-
phous species, and of the symmetrical crystallization of one salt
around a nucleus of another isomorphous with it, Delesse sug-
gests that the different forms and varieties of hornblendie and
pyroxenic minerals afford many examples of the kind. He
then adds, “ If, as Scheerer has remarked, water plays in silicates
the part of a base, anhydrous silicates may erystallize at the
‘somorphism, or homceomorphism, the association with pyroxene
of the hydrous species, schiller-spar, as well as that “of vari-
We may cite from Scheerer, as examples of what he call
were isomorphism, the association (in the same crystals) of
We have thus endeavored to set forth, chiefly in his own
words, the views enunciated in 1859 by Delesse, according to
Whom the phenomena of so-called pseudomorphism among
— exposé notre maniére de voir), he says, ‘ We hasten to ad
aia these facts may also be explained in a manner altogether
ttferent (peuvent aussi s'interpreter d'une mantere toute différ-
859).
. That ‘the « pseudomorphism” of the authors just named
ao. Dana or myseif who has misrepresented or misunderstoo
less “
eee Ty :
diffuse memoir of the latter, from which we have quoted, is
it T. S. Hunt on the Criticisms of Prof. Dana.
wanting in unity of plan and purpose; and that parts of it, if
we may hazard a conjecture, seem to have been written while
he still inclined to the views of the opposite school. From the
e of pseudomorphs which he has given, and from many
passages in the text, it might be inferred that he then held the
notions of Rose, Haidinger, ete., which he elsewhere, in the
same paper, speaks of as being entirely different from his own.
The views of Delesse, about this time, underwent a great change,
which has a historic importance in connection with those which
I advocate. When, in 1857 and 1858, he published the first
and second parts of his admirable series of studies on metamor-
phism, Delesse held, in common with nearly every geologist of
the time, to the eruptive origin of serpentine and the related
magnesian rocks. Serpentine was then classed by him with
other ‘‘trappean rocks;’ and he elsewhere asserted that ‘“ granitic
and trappean rocks” undergo in certain cases a change, near
their contact with the enclosing rock, by which they lose silica,
alumina and alkalies, and acquire magnesia and water, being
thus changed into a magnesian silicate; which may take the
form of saponite, serpentine, tale or chlorite. [Ann. des Mines,
V, xii, 509; xiii, 398, 415]. It would be difficult to state more
distinctly the view, which he then held, of the origin of these
magnesian rocks and minerals by the chemical alteration ms
ticed, in which, in place of the theory of epigenic pseudomor-
feantion of various mineral silicates, taught
by the German school, he brought forward, in explanation of
the facts upon which this was based, another theory, which was
only * extension of that already maintained by Scheerer and
myself.
It was not until 1861 that Delesse published the last part of
his studies on metamorphism, which appeared in the Memoirs
maintaining, as in 1858, that they are derived from the latter,
Delesse, in 1861, asserts, on the contrary, that ‘the plutonic
T. S. Hunt on the Criticisms of Prof. Dana. 45
rocks are formed from the metamorphic rocks, and represent
the maximum of intensity, or extreme limit of metamor-
ism.”
Journal for March, 1860 [II, xxix, 284] and more fully in the
nadian Naturalist for Jane, 1860 [also in this Journal, xxxii,
56], where it was pointed out that steatite, chlorite and serpen-
tine were probably derived from sediments similar to the mag-
a Silicates found among the tertiary beds in the vicinity of
aris, the so-called magnesian clays.
Ye have seen that these various novel views, put forth by
me in 1859 and 1860, though totally different from those taught
: followin e origin of ontine. He
g nearly Delesse” as to the origin of serpen :
also asserts that I “make Delesse the author of the theory of
46 T. S. Hunt on the Criticisms of Prof: Dana.
which the theory of metamorphism by alteration has been
built, are, for the most part, examples of association and en-
velopment, and the result of a contemporaneous and original
erystallization,—is identical with the view suggested by Scheerer
in 1846, and generalized by myself, when, in 1853, I sought to
explain the phenomena in question by the association and crys-
tallizing together of homologous and isomorphous species.”
To Delesse therefore belongs the merit not of having suggested
the notion of envelopment in this connection, but of ha aving
pointed out the bearing of the pbhocate tie ts 6 senishiereaackan:
and amorphous species on the question befo
Prof. Dana moreover asserts that while Silewice is the onl
one who maintains similar views to myself, I, in common wit
all other chemists, reject the chemical speculations which lie at
the base of his views. On the contrary, unlike most chemists,
who have failed to see the great principle which underlies
Scheerer’s doctrine of po re ae ism, I have main-
Jo
iffer by nM, nH,O,, may cag those differing by
»C,), have fa of homo ogy, and moreover be isomor-
phous. The existence of these same — was further
maintained and exemplified in sel tomic Volumes,
read by me before she French Aca ct of Sciences and ub-
stone to dolomite, and im doumaia to serpentine ; or more
directly from granite, granulite or diorite to serpentine at once,
without passing through the intermediate stages of limestone
and dolomite ;’—“ part of which transformations,” says Prof.
Dana, ~ phe one, had never conceived ; and Rose, Haidinger,
Rammelsberg, and probably Blum, and the | many others,’
” h
pret st udiate them asstrongly as myself.” The ‘ many other ers,’
as he a ee remarks, are “ other writers on pseudomorphism,”
among whom it would be unjust not to name their progenitor,
Breithaupt, von Rath and Miller, at the same time with Volger
and Bischof. According to Prof. Dana, I “add to the misrep-
T. S. Hunt on the Criticisms of Prof. Dana. 47
resentation by means of the strange conclusion that because
such writers hold that crystals may undergo certain alterations
in composition, therefore they beleve that rocks of the same
constitution may undergo the same changes.” This “strange
conclusion” I have always supposed to be Prof, Dana’s own,
0 one has perhaps asserted it so clearly or so broadly as him-
self, and I shall therefore quote his own words in my justifica-
tion. As early as 1845, in an article entitled ‘‘ Observations on
Pseudomorphism,” [this Journal I, xlviii, 92] he wrote: “The
Same process which has altered a few crystals to quartz has dis-
tributed silica to fossils without number, scattered through rocks
of all ages. The same causes that have originated the steatitic
Scapolites, occasionally picked out of the rocks, have given
magnesia to whole rock-formations, and altered, throughout,
their physical and chemical characters. If it be true that the
crystals of serpentine are pseudomorphous crystals, altered from
chrysolite, it is also true, as Breithaupt has suggested, that the
2 process of pseudomorphism, or in more general language, of meta-
morphism; the sa i i
ism, as it bears on all erystalline rocks, and of pseudomorphism,
are but branches of one system of phenomena.” If there could be
honing especially the first one, in which, he says, “‘ metamor-
wm ws spoken yr as pseudomorphism en a broad scale.” {This
Journal, If, xxv, 445}.
Prof. Dana, when in his last criticism of me, fourteen years
after the one just uoted, he reproaches me with having charged
him with hol ing the doctrine that “regional metamorphism is
Pseudomorphism on a grand scale ;” and declares that he makes
no such remark, neither expresses the sentiment in his Mineral-
By of 1854,
48 T. 8. Hunt on the Criticisms of Prof. Dana.
With these citations before us, and remembering the views
Scheerer, and the later ones of Delesse, together with the lan-
guage of the latter in his essay on Pseudomorphs, let us no-
tice the words of Naumann, addressed to Delesse in 1861, in
allusion to the essay in question. “Permit me to express to
ou my satisfaction for the ideas enunciated in your memoir on
seudomorphs, ideas which my friend Scheerer will doubtless
share with myself” (idées gue mon ami M. Scheerer partagera
sans doute comme mot-méeme). en follows the language which
I have quoted in my address, in which he combats the error of
those who hold that gniesses, amphibolites, and other crystalline
rocks are “the results of metamorphic epigenesis, and not ori-
ginal rocks,” and adds, “It is precisely because pseudomorphism
has so often been confounded with metamorphism that this error has
found acceptance.” [Bull. Soe. Geol. de Fr., II, xviii, 678].
The reader must now judge whose opinions it is that are here
denounced as erroneous, and whether Naumann was on the side
and 1860, already referred to. But while it has been generally
admitted that what, in my address, I have called the first class
of crystalline rocks (consisting chiefly of quartz and aluminous
silicates) might result from the molecular re-arrangement of the
elements of clay and sand-rocks, I maintained in those papers that
what I have called the crystalline rocks of the second class
(in which protoxide silicates predominate) have been generated,
by asimilar process, from deposits of chemically-formed silicates.
This view being adopted by Delesse and by Giimbel to explain
T. S. Hunt on the Oriticisms of Prof. Dana. 49
the origin of the various magnesian silicated rocks, hitherto
generally regarded as the product of epigenesis, the latter has
proposed to designate the process as diagenesis; a term which
I adopt, as one well fitted to denote the generation of all kinds
of erystalline rocks through a molecular re-arrangement of
sedimentary deposits, of whatever origin. Prof. Dana, in com-
mon with most other geologists, admits in his Manual the
production by diagenesis of the rocks of the first class, but in
the case of serpentine and steatite declares them to have been
formed by epigenic pseudomorphism or chemical alteration of
pyroxenic and other crystalline rocks; the origin of which is
important chapters in geological treatises.” [This Journal, I,
That Prof. Dana has receded from the extreme
views on this subject which he maintamed from 1845 to 1858,
and which I have constantly opposed, seems probable; but
until he formally rejects them, the student of geology will not
wnnaturally suppose that he still gives the sanction of
authority to the doctrine which he once taught, without any
qualification, but now repudiates, that “metamorphism ts pseu-
domorphism on a broad scale.” :
i, Dana having clearly defined the proposition that the
chemical alterations which are recognized in individual cryst
are to be conceived as extending to rock-masses; and having
moreover asserted that the principle of the identity of metamor-
phism and pseudomorphism “bears on all crystalline rocks,” is
logically committed to all the deductions as to the changes of
tocks which the transmutationist school has drawn from the
“upposed alteration of minerals. By reference to the table of
Pseudomorphs in the fourth edition of Dana’s Mineralogy, it
will be seen that each one of the metamorphoses of rocks men-
* ema _I shall however show, in addition, that in eac
“te plication of the principle to rock-masses has been recog-
nized by
It would be easy, did space permit, to extend greatly this list of
supposed transmutations. The various associations of rocks
; y: ~ ¥
gton Smyth, in his address already quoted, “to offer a
Premium to the ingenious for inventing an almost infinite
Am. Jour. So1r.—Tuirp Series, Vou. IV, No. 19.—Jury, 1872,
4
50 T. S. Hunt on the Criticisms of Prof. Dana.
series of possible combinations and permutations.” Before pro-
ceeding further it is to be noted that no distinction can, in many
cases, be established between the results of alteration (or partial
replacement) and substitution (or complete replacement) ; since
successive alterations may give the same product as direct sub-
stitution. Thus, for example, quartz might be directly replaced
by calcite, or else first altered to a silicate of lime, which, in
its turn, might be changed to carbonate. The alteration of
quartz to a silicate of magnesia, and that of both pyroxene and
pectolite to calcite, is maintained by the writers of the present
Metamorphosis of granite or gneiss to limestone. Calcite, we
are told, is pseudomorphous of quartz, of feldspar, of pyroxene,
and of garnet, besides other species: it moreover replaces both
orthoclase and albite ‘by some process of solution and substi-
tution.” [Dana’s Mineralogy, 5th edition, 361.] Since quartz,
orthoclase and albite can be replaced by calcite, the transmuta-
tion of granite or gneiss into limestone presents no difficulty.
I cannot, at present, give the reference to the statement of
Volger that some gneissoid limestones owe their origin to such
a process.
Metamorphosis of limestone to dolomite. This change 1s
maintained by von Buch, Haidinger and many others. I am
blamed for mentioning in connection with this-school the name
of Haidinger, who, Prof. Dana says, “never wrote upon the
subject of the alteration of rocks.” It has, however, never
before been questioned that Haidinger was the first, if not to
suggest, to clearly set forth the theory of the supposed conver-
sion of limestone into dolomite by the action of magnesian solu-
tions, aided by heat and pressure; a theory which I have else-
where refuted. [Bischof, Chem. Geology, iii, 155, 158; Zirkel,
Petrographie, i, 246 ; Liebig and Kopp, Jahresbericht, 1847-48,
1289, and this Journal, I, xxvii, 376].
Metamorphosis of dolomite to serpentine. This change is
maintained by G. Rose [Bischof, Chem. Geol., ii, 423], and by
Dana [this Journal, III, iii, 89].
Metamorphosis of granite, granulite, and eclogite directly into
serpentine, chlorite and tale. These transmutations are main-
tained by Miiller, and adopted by Bischof. [Chem. Geol., ii,
424, 434. |
trine from the pages of Bischof’s work already quoted. Meta-
morphosis of diorite, hornblende-rock and labradorite to serpen-
tine; G. Rose, Breithaupt, von Rath [ii, 417,418]. Diorite and
L. 8. Hunt on the Criticisms of Prof. Dana. 51
hornblende-slate to tale-slate and chlorite-slate ; G. Rose [iti, 312].
Mica-slate to tale-slate, and steatite and mica to serpentine,
steatite and tale; Blum, C. Gmelin [ii, 405, 468]. Quartz-rock
to steatite; Blum [ii, 468].
With regard to New England rocks, Prof. Dana asserts that
“there are gneisses, mica-schists, and chloritic and talcoid schists
+
in the Taconic series.” I have, however, shown in my address
made up from the ruins of the primary schists, and distinguished
from these by thé absence of the characteristic crystalline min-
erals which belong to the Green Mountain primary schists.
Again, Prof. Dana states that I make the crystalline schists
of the White Mountains a newer series than the Green Mount-
ain rocks. A careful perusal of my address will show that I
nowhere assert that the rocks of the third series, on my line of
section, are younger than the second series. Such a view of
their relations has, however, been maintained for the last gene-
tation by the Messrs. Rogers, Logan, and many others, all of
Whom assigned the crystalline schists of the White Mountains
to a higher geological horizon than the Green Mountains. Tn
Support of this view of their relative antiquity, I have, it is
“ae, brought together observations from South Carolina, Penn-
sylvania, Michigan, Ontario, and Maine, all of which point to
the same conclusion; and I might now add similar evidence
from New Brunswick and from Nova Scotia. My “chrono-
logical arrangement” of New England crystalline rocks, as it is
called by Prof. Dana, so far as it is my own, is limited to my
. n
directly overlaid by unerystalline shales, sandstones and con-
glomerates, made up in part of the ruins of these, and holding
52 D. Kirkwood— Meteors of April 30th-May 1st.
one has yet proved that these mineral characters are restricted
to rocks of a certain geological period. I answer, that in oppo-
sition to these facts, it has not yet been proved that they belong
to any later geological period than the one already indicated ;
and that it is only by bringing together observations, as I have
done, that we can ever hope to determine the geological value
of these mineral fossils. In no other way did William Smith
prove, in Great Britain, the value of organic fossils, and thus
lay the foundations of paleontological geology.
Montreal, April, 1872.
ArT. XL—On the Meteors of April 30th- May 1st; by Pro-
fessor DANIEL KrRKW0O
PROFESSOR SCHIAPARELLI, in his list of meteoric” showers
whose radiant points are derived from observations made in
Italy within the last few years, describes one as occurring on
April 30th and May Ist, the apparent position of whose radiant
is in the Northern Crown, R. A. 287°, N.P. D. 55°. The same
shower has also been recognized by Robert P. Greg, F.R.S., of
Manchester, England. This meteor-stream, it is now propos
to show, is probably derived from one much more conspicuous
in ancient times.
In Quetelet’s Physique du Globe, pp. 290-297, we find mete-
oric displays of the following dates. In each case the corres-
ponding day for 1870 is also given,* in order to exhibit the
close agreement of the epochs.
1. A. D. 401, April 9th ; ee BS to April ey, for 1870.
538, =
‘
2 6th: April 25
2 839, “9 arith ay ea $
4," —. OB7. 4 seme Ms April 30th, .
&.” = 984 ie « May Ist, :
6. “1009, * «“ April 28th, “
The epochs of bey and 934 suggest as probable the short
riod of 7 years. It is found agin: aly th ire
interval of 608 years—from 401 eee equal to 89
mean periods of 68315 years coh ” With this S approximate
value the six dates are all represented as follows
From A. D. 401 to A. D. 538, 20 periods of 6: 85 years.
, 44 “cc 6°84 ee
38 to
“ 839 to 927, 13 - ot Ee ety
_ 927 to 934, 1 10: =
ee 934 to 1009, 11 = Sus; ©
s period corresponds approximately to those of several
gaeta whose aphelion distances are somewhat greater than the — :
* Making proper allowance for the precession of the equinoxes.
C. F. Hartt—Tertiary Basin of the Marafion. 58
mean distance of J oc eee So long as the cluster occupied but
Ject to frequent perturbations by Jupiter.
ArT. XIL— On the Tertiary Basin of the Marafion ; by Cu. FRED.
Hartt, A.M.
ON the 12th of December, 1867, Prof. James Orton of Vas-
sar College, on his journey down the Marafion, or Peruvian
Amazonas,* spent a few hours at Pebas, a little village on the
several species of fossil shells, but strangely neglected to observe
the mode of their occurrence. In announcing his discovery in
this river is called by some writers the Amazon, Rio Amazon, Amazons or
0 If one uses either
8zon or Amazons there is no propriety in prefixing the Portuguese word Rio.
bd is Rio a zona
im it is commonly spoken of as o Amazonas or the Amazons. T have simply
followed the rule of not attempting to translate South American names. The
Who
swe
Mag. Nae Hist for J 1871, p. 6
; ist. for Jan. and Feb. » p. 6 Se
Od “rgpens Dese. of new fossil shells of the Rio Amazon, published in advance,
, 1870,
54 0. F. Hartt—Tertiary Basin of the Marafion.
pronounced drift ;” while in his ‘“ Andes and Amazon” he
simply says that the fossils occurred in a fossiliferous bed inter-
ealated between the variegated claysso peculiar tothe Amazon,’*
and that “‘interstratified with the clay deposits are seams of a
highly bituminous lignite.¢” Prof: Orton therefore leaves it to
be inferred that the Pebas beds are traceable down the whole
length of the yer i Mr. Henry Woodward, in the paper
just quoted in a foot note, says that the Pebas clays are ‘ evl-
dently Bed IT. of Prof. Agassiz’ s section.{” Orton sub-
mitted his fossils to Mr. Gabb, who described ay renin them§
under the names of Neritina pupa, Turbonilla minuscula, Mesalia
Ortoni, Tellina Amazoniensis, Pachydon obhqua and P. tenua.
In Mr. Gabb’s opinion these remains indicated a fauna of Ter-
tiary age. On the strength of this opinion Prof. Orton ven-
tured to attack Prof. Agassiz’s theory of the glacial origin of
the valley of the Amazonas, laying stress on the fact that the
shells occur well preserved, in _ place, and “ showing” no indi-
cation of a “‘ grinding glacier.”
Under the instructions of Prof. Orton, Mr. Hauxwell, an
intelligent naturalist, resident some 30 years on the Amazonas,
made larger and more complete collections of these shells and
found the fossiliferous beds elsewhere on the Marafion, especially
at Cochaquinas on the southern side of the river. These col-
lections were placed in the hands of Mr. Conrad, who described
them, distinguishing ten species of gasteropods and six of lamel-
libranchs, referring all the latter to the genus Pachydon (Aniso-
thyris Conrad). More recently Mr. Hauxwell sent large collec-
tions to England. Those in the ete as of Mr. Janson of
London were examined by Mr. Henry Woodward of the Brit-
ish Museum, and form the subject of the paper already twice
referred to. Mr. Woodward makes several changes of nomen-
clature, and describes two new species. The list of the Pebas
fossils now stands as follows:
GASTEROPODA. Hemisinus Swainson (freshwater !)
Tscea —— (freshwater ?) bag cise Conrad.
coher Conrad=Mesalia Ortoni| Py™s Conta
ph mrad.
Neritina Lamarck (fresh and brackish
os mrad,
Li d (freshwater ? he gla .
ri Cora re nag ) N. pupa Gabb (=N. Ortoni Con-
Ebora pL pnvereohag or marine ?) pares Sopot (land).
‘a Conrad.
Nesis subsgen of sean ~ Purbnila isso.
— T. minuscula Gabb.
Odostomia ? Woodward (brackish water).
* Andes an + Op. cf
¢ Bull. de Ta Soe. oe Geel. de France 24 Série, T. xxv, p. 685. at, ‘Geol. and Phys.
Geog. of Brazil, p
§ Amer. Jour. Sai vol, iv,
toe
C. F. Harti—Tertiary Basin of the Marafton. —BH
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. guishes two varieties : a, distorta,
Anodon Cuvier (fresh water). B, crassa.
nodon Batesit Woodward. . ovata Conrad
Anisothyris Conrad (=Pachydon Gabb)
(bracki ater).
A, tenuis (==Pachydon tenwis Gabb,
is Conrad, Anisothyris . cuneata Conrad.
Hauxwelli Woodward) ;* of this| Tellina.
Species Mr. Woodward distin- Tf. Amazoniensis Gabb.
in the summer of 1871 I met Mr. J. B. Steere, a graduate of
Michigan University, who was traveling on the Amazonas,
making natural history collections. We spent more than a
month together, and I took him over my old ground at Hreré
and Monte Alegre. As he was about to visit the upper Ama-
zonas, I gave him instructions to examine the Pebas locality,
make a geological section, showing the character and arrange-
ment of the beds, and collect carefully the fossils. Under date
of Jan. 26th of this year, he has written me an account of
his visit to the locality in question, and has sent some interest-
ig notes which give us for the first time a clear idea of its
geological structure, and of the conditions under which the fossils
are found
bo pe ba be be
Ss
5:
8
5
Q
=)
E
B
Mr. Steere says that a short distance below Tabatinga,t
Which, it will we remembered, is just on the boundary line
clay, with veins of oe coal dividing them. These veins
i
miles above Tabatinga; but owing to the shortness of the stop
of the steamer, he was unable to examine the locality with care.
He describes the country below Pebas as low and less than a
hundred feet above river level, i. e., during the n. e
fossiliferous clay beds lie near the level of the river, but they
are covered by 20-30 feet of red clay which he compares to the
Superficial clays so common on the lower Amazonas. Pebas, as
already stated, is situated on the left bank of the Rio Am-
* I sympathize with the wish to show honor to so deserving a gentleman as
Mr. Hauxwell, but the change of the specific name from tenuis, however inappro-
Priate the term may be, to Hauawelli, is unwise and inadmissible.
t Tabatinga is the name given to the white feldspathic clay common all over
Brazil Toud, Tupi, taba Portuguese form, is a yellowish clay; tinga means white.
56 C. F. Hartt—Tertiary Basin of the Marafion.
bayact, a mile above its confluence with the Marafion. Two
miles below the mouth of the Ambayacti is Old Pebas. Both
sites are on the high terra firme.* The right bank of the
Amazonas opposite the Ambayacu is recent poe low, but far-
ther down the terra firme appears, and Pichana is situated
upo
Phe | bank on which Pebas stands, Mr. Steere says, is about
100 feet high, that is during the dry season. In front of the
village the lower strata are hidden from view by a eg of nein
din
L The lowest bed seen is a ig clay of which a thickness
of fifteen feet is uncovered. In the middle is a band three
feet in eucee Scicaaag shells.
sae. * fined seam of lignite, six inches in thickness.
For a few fib bors and below this, the clay is filled with
vegetable remain:
Ill. A bed of ue clay, ee feet in thickness, with an
occasional shell too badly preserved to be remove
Ly. Blue clay, five feet ak full of fossils.
bed, ten feet in thickness, of red and white clay, and
ag without fossils. This forms the surface deposi
Not far from the ravine where the first section was made, Mr.
Steere made another as follows:
I 2or8 ft. of clay full of fossils.
Il. 106 ft. blue clay.
III. 3 ft. blue pie filled with fossils.
IV. : ft. dirty coal.
V.. 5 or 6 ft. of red and white clay.
In a ravine in the forest near the vil lage, he made still another
section, “ finding in descending order” (I quote his own wo:
‘five or six feet of red and white clay; a vein of dirty coal
(two feet); blue clay without fossils, ten feet; another narrow
vein of coal ; eight or ten feet of blue clay without fossils ; ;
more coal ; beds of clay without fossils; more coal veins.”
r, Steere visited Pichana, where he found much me same
structure as at Pebas. At Old Pebas the same beds are seen
containing beds of lignite, but they appear to be more denuded
an at New Pebas
At Iquitos Mr. Steere found similar beds that appeared to be
the continuation of those of Pebas, but afforded no fossils.
* Land not laid under water during the annual flood
+ Lieut. Herndon visited Pebas in 1851. He speaks of the ravines back of the
town in which a black slate rock crops out, and says that he brought from the
old town to the new “specimens of black clay slate, that crops out in narrow
veins on the bank, and made a fire with it, w ei purned all night, with a strong
bituminous smell.”—Exploration of Valley of the Amazonas, Pt. I, pp. 219-220.
C. F. Hartt—Tertiary Basin of the Marafion. 57
Mr. Steere has made very extensive collections of the fossils
of the Pebas locality and vicinity, and they will probably
afford some new species. When these collections with their
accompanying lithological specimens shall have been studied,
we shall have more details relative to the character of the beds
tof. Agassiz could have seen the blue clays in the neighbor-
hood of Tabatinga, for he makes no mention of the lignites
Which occur in them, and it also seems to me doubtful whether
variegated clays, but in an older and distinct underlying forma-
te quite unlike the ordinary more recent variegated clays of
ing the age of the lower series, leaving the question of the age of
the superficial clays undecided. They certainly afford no proof
them with the superficial clays of the Lower Amazonas, for my
,Xperience with these deposits has satisfied me, that, how simi-
: er these beds may be in different localities, they may
*
58 C. F. Hartt—Tertiary Basin of the Marafion.
vary in age and greatly in the conditions under which they were
, deposited.
Ase Pebas shells do not shed one ray of light on the ee
question of the glaciation of the Amazonian valley. I hav
owever, shown that the supposed facts on which Prof. Aegean
founded his theory, viz: the assumed identity of structure of
the Serras of Ereré and Parti (Almeyrim); the occurrence re
erratics of diorite at Ereré, etc., were no facts at all. Hrer
a monoclinal ridge of sandstone which no geologist would ever
think of calling drift, and the supposed drift clays at its base
contain lower Devonian trilobites and are traversed by trap
dykes; the supposed erratics of diorite are boulders of decompo-
sition; the Serras of Parti* are composed of horizontal beds of
soft rocks undoubtedly more modern than the coast of Kreré
and offering not the first evidence of glacial origin ; the gigan-
tic moraine which Prof. Agassiz thought to have pete
across the mouth of the Amazonas does not exist. Moreover
I have failed in finding, during many months of careful search,
anything like drift in the province of Para; and therefore, hav-
ing no evidence whatever of the former existence of glaciers in
the Amazonas, or question of the glacial origin of the valley
need not be rais
eI do sok ‘believe in the glaciation of the Amazonas, I
still saThies to the belief that glaciers have existed in the cen-
tral and southern portions of the Brazilian plateau. Prof. O. H.
St. John, who, as one of the geologists of the Thayer expedi-
tion, made a journey through the interior of Brazil from Rio de
Janeiro to Maranhao, assures me that he has found not only the
superficial deposits, but also the topography characteristic of a
glaciated country in Minas Shea while these phenomena are
not visible in Piauhy and Mar
ough the Pebas shells thick no light on the question of
the glaciation of the Amazonian valley, they aid in establishing
the fact that the Upper Amazonas or “Maraiion, from Iquitos to
ae a distance of some 240-250 miles, flows through a
‘cca Be asin, _ we of the river being deepl cut through
this age. The width of this basin is undetermined, as
is also the atest age of the beds, for the nature of the fauna is
such that it is impossible to say to which division of the Ter-
tiary they are to be referr The fauna indicates an
estuary formation. That at the time of the deposition of Pebas
beds there was water communication between the basins of the
Amazonas and the Orinoco is scarcely probable.
* IT visited the Serra of Paraudquara in 1871.
Chemistry and Physics. 59
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
eter. Pure iodine is then introduced into the tube, which
after expulsion of the air is sealed. If the iodine be then volatil-
wed and the wire ignited by a battery, the spiral appears sur-
rounded by a flame of a very rich red color, which yields the
well-known interrupted spectrum.— Comptes Rendus, Tome Ixxiv,
a ei Ww. G.
2. On the absorption spectra of the vapors of selenium and of
certain other Bihiek. — Getter bee fond ee the vapors of
Seenium and a number of other colored vapors give distinctly
marked absorption bands. When selenium is heated in a porce-
aed by the author. Tellurium when volatilized in an atmos-
Phere of dry carbonic acid gas emits at a very high temperature a
golden yellow vapor, which yields a very brilliant absorption
ru
Yapors, which act verv strongly onlight. The absorption spectrum
8 particularly Seislond gt orange and the green, Tellurous
60 Scientific Intelligence.
bromide gives a violet vapor, the most remarkable absorption
bands of which are in the red and the yellow. Proto-bromide of
ors. Ali
acetals heated gives a which exhibit systems of sens ye
equidistant rays im about the middle of the spectrum.—
— ome lxxiv,
On the absorption spectra of the vapors of sulphur, seloniou
ree and hypochlorous acid.—The same writer has obse t
plates of glass gave at first vapors which absorbed the most re-
frangible rays of the spectrum, leaving finally a red band extend-
ing a little beyon On raising the temperature higher this
band spreads out; the ‘other rays of the spectrum then reappear,
the violet and blue being crossed by bundles of dark rays. The
phenomenon is therefore the same as that observed in the case of
selenium. Selenious acid at the instant of vaporization gives well-
marked dark ae Sig nomen in the violet and blue. The author
found the absorption spectrum of hypochlorous acid identical with
that of Ny poshiieis and grit acids, only in the case of h
chlorous acid the layer of gas must be much longer in order that
the phenomenon may be distinotly ‘visible. Aqueous solutions of
all these gases give the most salient lines of the gases pemeety es.
— Comptes Rendus, Tome xxiv 03. w.
4. Jluoride o of silver.—In continuing his researches on ae
compdunds of fluorine, Mr. G. E has arrived at the following
ults: Iodine acting upon ai fluoride with the aid of heat
produces argentic iodide and fluoride of iodine. Fluoride of iodine
red-hot platinum, but which corrodes glass at 60° F., and crystals
of silicon at a red heat, as well as platinum in contact with argen-
tic fluoride in a state of fusion. It fumes strongly in the air, and
is decomposed by nag into fluohydric and iodic acids,
F,+3H, a
not act on an aqueous soieion of the salt at
60° F. Rs Be of silicon placed upon argentic fluoride when
fused became at once red hot, wenal ire sh ier combustion, and
areola wean! of silicon. Al ump of tused —— st slowly
in
Chemistry and Physics. 61
to this mixture, bubbles of spontaneously inflammable silicide of
hydrogen were evolved and ignited. Pure and dry silicon added
to argentic fluoride at a temperature of low redness evolved much
heat with violent action, and set free metallic silver. The fluoride
when fused is rapidly decomposed by sulphur with evolution of
sulphur i i ing formed.
as a very powerful dusty odor. Sulphur rapidly decomposed an
4Agh+CS,—2Age,5+ €F,.
The tetra-fluoride is Sains “acid I ies ag E. Phil. Mag.,
May, 1872. Tage
5. On a method of fiaing the Constitution of Acids and Alco-
hols by the oxidation of their Ketones.—In his researches upon
the oxidation of ketones, Poporr observed a uniformity of results
Which led him to suggest this oxidation as a means of determin
ing the rational constitution of acids and alcohols. Taking the
~ Varieties of ketone expressed by the following general form-
(1) CH, Sat (CHy)n — CO — R
(2) == CH — (CH,), —CO—R
(3) CH
sot —CO—R
sae —CO—R
ho
by the acid
eve: this method may be used to determine the constitution of the
the noe tadical which is contained in any acid.
alec) > acids may be obtained by oxidizing the corresponding
Sohols, the constitution of these latter may also be determi
y this method. : *
a re ‘est the method, amyl aleohol—of boiling point 130° to 1915 ;
nN whose power of rotation in a tube 25 cm. long was —2'4°,—
62 Scientific Intelligence.
was oxidized, and the valeric acid ABE Sian boiled from
174° to 176° , and i in which a=+-4°4°,—was converted into the eal-
cium salt, and distilled with an equivalent quantity of calcium
benzoate. On rectifying the product, it boiled at 225° to 226°, and
afforded on analysis numbers agreeing with those required by
butylphenyl ketone. To fix the constitution of the butyl it con-
tained, the ketone was oxidized. The products consisted of ben-
zoic acid and iso-but tyric acid, with traces of acetic acid; thus
proving that this ketone, and also, therefore, the valeric acid and
the amyl alcohol from which it was derived, — iso-butyl
and not butyl. Their neene ey Peers ya
o1°>CH—CH, —COOH and © 2 >CH—CH, —CH, OH,
a result already confirmed in sides wide by Erlenmeyer, Frank-
land a8 Duppa, and Butlerow.— Ber. Berl. chem. Ae: aN, oe
Feb., 1872. B.
6. On Phenol ee and their Relation to Natural Coloring
atters.— B. r has continued his researches on gallein and
fluorescein,” re Sekt 4 coloring matters derived from the ane
(1.) Phenol colors. Whi 0 part s of feo, 5 aks phthalic
—— and 4 parts concerns sulphurio acid are heated to 120°
o 130° for several hours, a red mass is obtained, yee a ye
Lelekewhite powder on gstareilisn with boiling
dissolved in potassium hydrate, and precipitated Aes perma ihe
acid, a granular precipitate is obtained, having the c composition
C,H, 0... It is the pethe al <- of henol I has probably the ration-
al constitution C gH,(CO.C,H Olt >, and is isomeric with the
pisos ether of phenol. ‘When Sheare. ra solution in potassium
ydrate, with zine-dust, the magnificentl y fuchsine-colored solu-
tion is decolorized, and hydrochloric acid precipitates therefrom
the white granular phthalin of phenol, C,,H,,O,. Mellitic and
pyromellitic acids act similarly upon phenol ; but the most inter:
* This Journal, III, ii, 203.
Chemistry and Physics. 63
esting action is that of oxalic acid, which has long been known,
and the product of which is rosolic acid. The aurin, lately isola-
ted from rosolic acid by Dale and Schorlemmer, Baeyer supposes
to be C,,H,,O, and to result from the oxidation of leucoaurin
C,,H,,0,, which is thus produced:
CO,-+(C,H,0),=C, ,H, ,0,+(H,9)..
_(2.) a Naphthol colors. a Naphthol, heated with phthalic oxide,
yields light yellow crystals of the anhydride of the phthalein of
naphthol, C,,H,,0,, insoluble in potassium hydrate. Heated
with sulphuric acid, it gives a beautiful red body, C,,H, .Ox.
Oxalic, mellitic and pyromellitic acids act similarly on anaphtho
i ith ph
.{3.) Resorcin colors. Resorcin heated with phthalic oxide,
gives the phthalein of resorcin, or fluorescein, which, precipitated
from its potash solution by hydrochloric acid, is C,,H,,0,, bu
recrystallized from alcohol is C,,H,.0,. Reduced by zinc-dust,
the corresponding phthalin is obtained. Heated with sulphuric
acid, a red body is formed, which is turned blue by alkalies, and
which yields a second red body on reduction. It closely resem-
bles the coloring matter of litmus. Succinic oxide gives with
rein, the succinein of resorcin; and oxalic acid, the carbonein,
rar sme ©, ,H,0,.
*.) Lyrogallol colors. rogallol rogallic acid) by the
action of phthalic oxide, se satel Orr 0., the ietadein
of pyrogallol. Reduced, it gives gallin C,,H,,0,. Heated with
sulphuric acid, it forms cerulein, C,,H,,0,, and this on reduc-
tion gives cerulin, Oxalic acid and succinic oxide, as well as oil
of bitter-almonds, acetone, etc., also afford colored compounds
When heated with pyrogallol.
peyaroquinone gives with phthalic oxide a red | pthatein, solu-
© in potash with a violet color, and dyeing, like brazil-wood,
with iron and alumina mordants. Pyrocatechin, thus treated,
Sives a phthalein, soluble in potash with a transient oo”
; i
maxing Compound belongs to the sugar group or to the family of
8etable acids. Thus hematein—the coloring matter of log-
ma:
: i i ] °° . .
ch amie acids or with a derivative of crotonic acid.— Ber. Berl.
mt. Ges, iv. 658, July, 1871. G. F. B
64 Scientific Intelligence.
New Erecting Prism; by Josereu ZentTMayer.—Mr
Joseph Zentmayer exhibited ae described a single prism, which
erects the i image completely, and in such a way oe the incident
and emerging rays are parallel, which, as far as we cnow, was
never accomplished before. In connection with tne microscope,
s it was shown, it interfered very little with the definition, and,
although the light i is twice refracted and reflected, the loss of ight
is much less than one would expect. With the microscope, the
prism is placed right above the objec sai e, and the instrument may
be used in any inclined position. r of such prisms might be
used also for an erecting binocular microscope of which the two
bodies have the same inclination to the s tage.
Fig. 1 shows the front and profile of the prism. The projection
of the front is a square, that of the profile an isosceles triangle.
The angles at the base of the triangle are 27° 19’ for crown glass
of a refracting index of 1°53, in ae ss obtain the greatest aper-
ture combined with the smallest pri
Fig. 2 is a view from above. The peer of A, B, and C of figs.
1 and 2 are the identical ones, their dotted parts are the ays
‘isee of the rays inside of the glass, and their course may be reat
Geology and Natural History. 65
cof followed in the profile, fig. 1, where the upper ray, By emerges
e lower one, and the lower ray, C, as the upper on
s the ray A enters the pervendicnlas line above th lower
edge, it will not be reflected out of its plane, while the rays B
as A emerge at the corresponding opposite point,
a perspective representation of the prism. — Journal
Franklin. Institute.
Il. GroLtogy anp Natrurat History.
1. On the Eozoon ; by Dr. Dawsoy.—Dr. Dawson published a
reply to the first of the extended memoirs of Messrs. King and
is said by the ae ere describer of the Eozoo
In opposition to these facts, and to the careful deductions drawn
from them, the authors of the paper under consideration maintain
that mae str uctures are mineral ahd orystarane I believe that in
t
2 “plastic-force” as a mode of scedun tin for fossils would not be
tolerated for am ment, were it not for the great antiquity and
highly crystalline aatdinion of the rocks in which the structures are
found, which naturall create a prejudice against the idea of their
being’ fossiliferous, That the authors themselves feel this is appar-
ent from the s slight manner in which they state the leading facts
above given, and from their evident anxiety to restrict the question
to the mode of occurrence of serpentine in limestone, and to ignore
= Laveounens of Kozoon preserved under different mineral condi-
Wi th perence to the general form of ers and its structure on
the larg e scale, I would call attention to two admissions of the
authors of the paper, w oa appear to me to be fatal to their case:
First, they admit, at page 533 [ henner % vol, x], their “inabil-
ity to andthe pairs ily” the alternating rol tbe gee carbonate of
Roz inerals in the typical s specim of Canadia
beg They oak a feeble attempt to establish an poneny
between this and certain concentric concretionary layers; but the
e
Z0On pres
any concretionary hypothesis. If, however, they are unable t
ion the lamellar’ structure alone, as it appeared to Logan in a
°9, is it not gar to attempt to explain it away now, when
yttain minute internal structures, co: ing to what might
ay been exp : rigin, are
ted on the hypothesis of its organic origin,
ded to it? If I affirm that . certain mass is the trunk of a fossil
AM,
Jour. Sot.—Turep Series, Vor. 1V, No. 19.—Jury, 1872,
5
66 Scientific Intelligence.
tree, and another asserts that it is a concretion, but professes to be
unable to account for its form and its rings of. growth, surely his
case becomes very weak after I have made a slice of it, and have
shown that it retains the structure of w
Next, they appear to admit that if dpedtinon occur wholly com-
with scepticism as probably “strings of segregated calcite.
Since the account of that specimen was published, additional frag-
ments have been collected, so that ‘new slices have been prepared.
locality, and are, therefore, probably Upper Laurentian, or per ~
Hurorian, so that the eee specimens may appr roach in age t
Giimbel’s Eozoon Bavaie
Further, the authors of ore paper have no right to object to our
regarding the laminated specimens as “typical” Eozoon, If the
question were as to typical ophite, the case would be different ; but
the question actually is as to certain well-defined forms which we
regard as fossils, and allege to have organic structure on the small
scale, as well as lamination on the nace cale. We profess to
fragments of corals occur in Paleozoic marstores but we are
under no obligation to accept irregular or disintegrated specimens
as hiner and, nies it pet reason from these ok won we
thie Birds-eye limestone seb the Lower Silurian of Ameri ca, as Crys-
talline gens! bu : a comparison with the unbroken masses of
he same coral sho
Tre :
a. I propose, shortly, to public por feats examples, showing
fragments of various kinds of fossils preserved in these limestones,
and recognizable only by the infiltration of their pores and other
minute structures. I a l also be able to show that in many cases
the crystallization of the carbonate of lime and the infiltration of
*Dr. Hunt, in a recent communication to this Journal for July, 1870, p. 2
is supposed to tees them as resepestiagh eg a great series of strata not hi eget
clearly recognised, | ee ee age but distinct from 2’
newer than the Upper Laurentian and the Huro:
Geology and Natural History. 67
other substances have not interfered with the perfection of the
most minute of these structures.
e
aa have the cavities filled with a sedimentary limestone, an
on Several fragmental specimens from Madoc are actually wholly
nu Specimens present great difficulties to an observer; and _
peak no doubt that they are gets overlooked by collectors in
sequence of their not being developed by weathering, or show-
ng any obvious structure in fresh fractures,
With regard to the canal system, the authors persist in confus-
retions, and in likening them to dendritic crystallizations of silver,
of lime. Ina r
Oren as other than very imperfect, imitative. I may a
7h Ss case 1s one of the occurrence of a canal structure in forms
ich on other grounds appear to be organic, while the concre-
ve te
ous objections, I leave Dr. Hunt to deal.
Ith regard to the proper wall and its minute tubulation, the
8
Morganic. With regard to the first of these positions. I ma
Pet ey a8 angular crystals, closely pac ogether, while the
spicular crystals of siliceous minerals which often oie
cifica-
and R ;
‘ ‘af as é
“sample of this; and whatever the nature of the crystals may be,
* “ Quarterly Journal Geol. Society,” 1864.
68 Sceventific Intelligence.
they baye no appearance in the plate of being tubuli of Eozoon,
I have very often shown microscopists and geologists the cell-wall
along with veins of chrysotile and coatings of acicular crystals
occuring in the same or similar limestones, and they have never
failed at once to recognize the difference, “especially under high
powers.
I do not deny that the tubulation is often imperfectly preserved,
and that in such cases the casts of the tubuli may appear to be
microscopist examining them. How difficult is it in many cases
to detect the minute See of Nummulites and other fossil
Foraminitera? How often does a specimen of fossil wood present
in one part distorted ae sooteen fibers or mere crystals, with
the remains of the wood forming pbragmata between them, when
in other parts it may show the most minute structures in perfect
reservation? But who feauld use the disintegrated gs to
invalidate the evidence of the parts better preserved? Yet this is
seca the argument of Professors King and batt and heh
they have not hesitated in using in the case of a fossil so old as
Eozoon, and so often compressed, crushed, and es aearojed by
mineralization.
Tha
me progress has been apes and I trust that it will soon be pos-
sible to bring forward not merely additional specimens pvp?
of the structure of Eozoon, but fresh evidienns of its wide geograph-
ical range, and also links of co connexion with fossils of the Paleozoic
roc e discovery recently made in Massachusetts, and
alluded to Lh Messrs. Rowney and King, is itself not witho vat im-
portance. In the meantime un content to rip the webbie!
tions of Messrs. King and Rowney as nearly exhaustive of the
natural history of those age forms which may be confounded
with Eozoon, and therefore as in a certain way useful in the ek
ther prosecution of the sahjees As already stated, I am at
Geology and Natural History. 69
(2) that of the tubulation and other structures similar to those of
Eozoon preserved in the Paleozoic rocks.
case in very few other instances, The railway company have given
the find to have been a most important one, and one that may well
come under the notice of the International Congress of Archeology
and Anthropology at their meeting this year, where the whole
{nestion of bone caves and their contents is to form a prominent
Subject for discussion.
he cave in question was originally, when first discovered about
two years ago, 28 metres (about 91 ft.) long, and was
fissure in the Jura limestone, which had been enlarged by running
water. Its Opening was visible half way up the mountain side,
partly hidden in dense woods. It stretched from north to south,
year has already cut away one half of the cave; but unfortunately
the contents were employed on the line. On this account, only the
Part not touched was able to be excavated and examined, and this
middle 3 metres (9} ft.) deep. Wood ashes and pieces of coal, to-
gether with pieces of pottery, had accumulated to about the height
ad ich were sharp splinters of flint,
and a thick mass of broken and split bones, and the shattered
pkulls and jaw bones of a heterogeneous mass of animals of all
kinds. In the lowest layer no trace of men, either by their remains
or by their handiwork, could be found; all the remains consiste
of bones of animals
chiefly the cave bear, hyena, and lion. ‘These
»ve-dwelling animals appear to have been the first and earliest
Possessors of the cave. But soon after this, men must have dis-
70 Scientific Intelligence
those of the previously-named animals. The most numerous
remains consist of flints, of which many siGuina were found; but
these do not appear to have been used as implements, but come
rather under the category of flint-flakes, the chippings from knives,
Saws, sees &c. The most perfect one found is three inches
long half-an-inch wide, and is toothed like a saw, and was
piolaely used as such to a off the ends of the deer’s borns, of
which quantities were foun
n order to judge of tee age in which men began to inhabit this
cave, we must examine the remains of the bones and skeletons of
the G inanfe which they hunted, and whose flesh was eaten in the
cave € most conspicuous among these is the cave bear, and
although it might at first sight appear very difficult to recognize
in the broken and burnt bits of bone that they really do belong to
the cave bear, nevertheless, careful comparison with specimens
in museums has proved that this is the case. Eve ery care seems
capture. 5 the same pie , together with the bones of the cave
ping are found bones of the elephant and of the rhinoceros, but
nany in comparison. ese remains, however, show con-
aavely by the way in which they have nigh spilt up and broken,
that man —— Hee animals at the time he first appears on
the scene. Remains of horses, oxen, ie and wolves were also
met with, sar in proof that the early inhabitants were not
unmindful of fish, there are the bones and scales of large pike and
carp. The smaller bones of mice and frogs do not appear to owe
their origin so much to man as to the owls, which seem to have
held possession of the cave as well.
Great interest attaches to the fragments of pottery which were
found in the cave, and which rival the flint flakes in quantity.
It appears to have been all hand made, but gprs. 2: rough, shows
considerable beauty of shape and form. It s possible to 0 put to-
gether from the fragments one or two more or less complete ves
sels, which, however, show great diversity as to size, &c., some
in di The
A block of gimnite Sui os one Ae 8 mabhed smooth by lon z usage, and
appearing quite eee can hardly be ee ee than a well-
worn millstone, and this is rendered more probable by two * holes
having been bo is. oe upper side as if for the purpose e of
affixing a handle. The presence of this millstone would inne
the cultivation of land in the immediate neighborhood, which 18
confirmed by the finding of several spindles made of clay.
Geology and Natural History. 71
The different objects found in this cave are of great interest, as
they apparently run counter to the somewhat hard and fast lines
which have been drawn as to different well marked periods in the
early history of man.—~ Nature, May 30.
3. Pseudomorphs of Serpentine with the form of Staurolite ;
T. D. Ranv (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1871).—At the line
between Philadelphia and Montgomery counties, the well-known
steatite bed, beginning on the west side of Chestnut Hill, about
three miles distant, crosses the Schuykill and continues in a nearly
southwest by south direction (exactly 8. 54 W.), beyond that river
about two miles and a half, where it crosses the valley of Mill
Creek, and ends, or sinks beneath the surface. Perhaps the most
rate.
‘ one place hereafter mentioned, seem to weather so much alike
at no clue to the form can thus be
fe unnerite.
n the northeast side of Mill Creek, a portion of the rock in
Ke surface, the steatite
d bri
ng cavernous and decom soft and brittle,
rae to be other than matrices of crystals, while in two cases
+ uct cruciform cavities with angles of about 60° were observec
portions of rock containing these were cut out, and in
72 "Scientific Intelligence.
one of them lead was poured, and a cast obtained, which, while
irregular and rough, was a fac-simile in metal of the common
cruciform twins of staurolite. Portions of the same rock, which
had not altered, were found containing the serpentine in distinct
a ir a in ae ink twinned at angles of about 60°.
. Hisingerite, from the Gap Mine, Lancaster County, Pa. ;
eos lack smueekens lustre between resinous and
vitreous ; streak, brown. Fracture conchoidal, brittle. H.—23-3.
G.== 2.11.
Analysis, omitting 1.13 per cent. gangue :—
W ater at 212". Sus Se
at redness pee ga a 9.89 24.19
See ee es eee
FeO Se ae a ee rege gr ae ee
Peg ce re eee ee ae
99.58
In a cutting through decomposed mica schists, on the new line
of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore "Railroad, about
half a mile southwest of Gray’s Ferry, there is a white efflorescence,
alkaline to the taste. It consists chiefly of oar ee of soda, an
unloo “igh mineral in such location.—Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei.
Phitlad.
5. Deseripti tons of new species of Fossils from the vicinity a4
Louisville, Ky., and the Falls of the Ohio; by James Hatt a
R. P. WuirFietp, 7 Published ‘May, 1872, in sacl
of the Report on the Beate | Museum. Contains descriptions of
species of Orthis, Spirifera, Pentamerus, Aviculopecten, Yoldia?,
la, a Pol nee se and of the new genus
Ptychodesma, based on a modioloid
6. Mineralogical ep pac cri of aes Rath.—The 144th vol-
ume of Poggenc meee 8 alen con ntains a continuation of the val-
nine Alps; wollastonite of Mt. Somma; allophane of Dehrn in
Nassau.
7. Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute
of Natural Science of Halifax, Nova Scotia.—Part I. of vol. iii,
94 pp. 8vo. (5s.), has recentl ‘peen issued. It contains several
tte on the geology, natura t nisvery, and meteorology of Nova
tia.
- Mare Micheli ; On some Recent cinegse vg in Vegetable
ae ty An article in the Archives des Sciences of the
Bibliotheque Universelle of Geneva, in ee a t reproduced in
English in the Ann. and Mag. of Natural ondon, for
ebruary and March last.—Micheli is a renaad WEE into the
French of Sachs’ volume upon Vegetable Faysologys 4 and we trust
he will translate the other volumes of the series to which this
belongs, The researches which are first ERE PEG in this inter-
Geology and Natural History. BS
esting article, relating to the movements of chlorophyl grains in
the cells of leaves i s
the whole protoplasmic mass; and Frank (in Bot. Zeit.) finds that
the result of prolonged unilateral illumination is to accumulate the
grains In the more strongly illuminated side of the cell,—that, like
hyl
a: those of Famintzin, Krauss, Prillenx, Boronetsky (Bot.
eit., 1871, No. 13), and Pfeffer, go to confirm the now well-
White light decomposes 100 parts of carbonic acid,
ed and orange “ 32.1 s
Ow “ce
Yell 46.1 :
Green ee 15.0 re
Blue, indigo, and
violet ns 7.6 ~
.- Curve of assimilation, nearly parallel to the curve of luminous
Surmpee culminates between the Fraunhofer lines D and E._
henomena which result from the absence of light, Krauss
4 ond normal dimensions. The blade of a leaf, it appears,
°mpletes its growth after coming into the light solely from the
waterials which it assimilates (into starch or its equivalent) ;
Starch stored up in the older tissues is of no use to it. In dark-
ms cti a
otk. » and the ligneous and cortical cells, or passive parts, on the
wg rom an anatomical point of view the etiolated internodes are
Tistinguishea by presenting all the characters of very young inter-
74 Scientific Intelligence.
nodes just ee — the bud; the thickening of the walls of the
ligneous and cortical cells, which characterizes adult stems is
here wholly poo This thickening, indeed, is Saas by bonds
which are not yet very wasn understood to the presence of leaves
on the internode. In darkness the leaves not being developed, the
cells retain the primitive pean of their membranes.
“ This being understood, the elongation of the etiolated stems
is easily explained, thanks to the intervention of two factors. In
the peripheral layers that itis it ; in youn
jected to a tension strong enough to cause them to shorten con-
siderably when they are isolated. But in proportion as their
walls become thickened the resistance becomes more effective, and
we see this in the fact that their contraction, when they are separ-
ated from the rest, becomes less and less. In darkness their
walls do not thicken, and nothing is opener to the elongation of
the ped ery cells. This is the first fac
Vith regard to the pith itself, M. RS 6s already shown,
in a former work (Botan. Zeit., 1867, Nos. 17, 18), that it has
the property of het ip solely by the interpoution of aqueous
molecules between the cellulose molecu is interposition
may take place in the etiolated as in the seul Gat: ; the pith
is, therefore, the only part of the plant which continues to grow
actively in ‘the dar is growth is precisely the second factor
e jak gi ps - os internodes ; and by combining it with
the absence o nce in the peripheral ys we can under-
recent observations —— relate to the ‘action of cold upon
plants, iota j r, have been already referred to in
se pages, see Michel 8 abstract of Schreeder’s researches upon the
of the Maple ” we will reproduce :—
The pin has paid attention to all the successive aoa
ie ee works which, even when they do not contain any Vv
ults, are, nevertheless, very useful to read and py bie ;
but it is is difficult to give a clear notion of them in a few words.
glance at the course pursued by M. Schreder will show the great
number of facts which group themselves within a frinework| such
as he has adopte
“ The first part is entirely devoted to the study of the sap, its
ascent and its composition. The maple, under the latitude of
in its composition. It always contains sugar, a transitory p
of the transformation of the starch accumulated in the. aca
oy,
4
es
Geology and Natural History. 75
during the preceding summer, and destined to become re-trans-
formed when it reaches the buds. The proportion, faithfully
approaching the term of their development, are on the verge of
sufticing for themselves. These facts are, therefore, perfectly in
mic
which are called upon to assist in the development of the young
leaf are traced by means of reagents from cell to cell. Two,
‘specially, give origin to detailed observations, namely starch and
in. The dissemination of the former in the different sal Be
ro-vasc
4 confirmation of all that theory led us to foresee. As to tannin,
tis developed in all the cells of the bud ; an i
ie € Its appearance it persists there, without appreciable change.
ts function has grea was
unable to recognise in it any of the characters of an excrementi-
Problem would, erhaps, become easier.” . @,
oe Botany for Beginners ; an Introduction to the Study of
Baas by Maxwext T. Masters, M.D., F.R.S. London, 1872:
psabury, Evans & Co. Pp. 185, 18mo. A series of articles
ae of elementary botany with admirable freshness and clear-
ae and illustrated by wood-cuts of uncommon excellence,
tracted our attention during the past year in the pages of suc-
se i ;
into this little volume e articles, it appears, from the
_ Dr. Masters; the illustrations were contributed by Mr.
ington § are ten chapters, or lessons.
Vo
frst, explaining how to begin, and starting with early spring
OWers, is a study of a willow and poplar, followed by the ash
snd elm. The second, tulip and eee: The third, the apple
— <osaa » followed by the lilac compared with the ash, and so on.
and €nd are short chapters on fruit and seeds; on seedling plants
in Srowth; on classification description, and points to be looked to
each organ; and finally, a particularly good one on plant life.
76 Scientific Intelligence.
The book is truly admirable in plan and execution,—especially so
for the skill with which the main points are Boat and handled,
and less Pago matter passed by. There is not a particle of
rubbish from old books ; but room is found ae some notice of phyl-
lotaxy, a view ef insect. appraise in orchids, and a ise accom
of natural selectio e natural classification of plants is char
acterized as an abbacit to determine their degree of relationship
and to ascertain their lineag
We learn that Dr. feonita Wricnt, the distinguished Tndian
botanist, aku died at Granby Lodge, his residence in England
since he returned from active jihad
G. F. Reuter, the curator for many years past of the herba-
a of M. Boisner, and an pxiblient botanist, died in vie se at
10. Misi Appalachiani: or specimens of Mosses clita
ieee in the eastern part of. North America ; by Cor F. Aust
given us under the title above cited; and it comes quite oppor
tunely, as those of a similar kind, relating to North American
oe
cdo Polen Appalachiani Bic put up in uniform sets, each se
varieties fastened on white me of suitable sizes, and arranged
io 8
a sufficient Latin character, A title- e-page, and ¢ omplete
fides! together with a separate pamphlet containing tha labels,
accompany each set.
The specimens, with very few exceptions, were collected by Mr.
Austin in New Jersey—a state representing more fully, perhaps,
of i
Indies. This latter portion of the State is remarkably rich in
A pi of Sphagnum, fine and abundant specimens of which for™
- feature of the collection.
s gratifying to find, as is shown by the collection, that
within the limits indicated in the title, large additions have
recently made in new species, and no species which, thoug!
previously ati have not heretofore been detected in this
country. For these additions to no one are we so mue
hi
indebted _as_ to ae. Austin himself. ane are may sip
Astronomy, 17
briatum, Sph. Girgensohnii, Sph. teres, Sph. Pylaesii (in fruit),
(in fruit), S
)
A. neglectum, Sph. laricinum,
ph. Wulfianum, Sph. Lindbergii y Micromitrium Austini, Mier.
Ephemorum papiliosum ; Ano-
ectangium Peckii ; Conomitrium Hallianum ; Pottia riparia ;
idymodon cylindricus; Didym. diversifolius ; Desmatodon
Wood-euts. New York. 1872. (Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co.)
~—This little volume for young people has been made every way
= u in its simple and interesting account of the
abits of certain plants, by the author. The special subjects of
the chapters are lants move, climb e positions ;
?
plant
How plants employ insects to work for them; How certain
Journal of Zoology.—A new Zoological Journal ( Journal de
f. Paul Gervais of
‘ompleted.in about 13 numbers, containing each 3 sheets of text,
De ag A. Conra
prntdes of North America”; by Isaac Lea, L.L.D. 46 pp., 8vo.
: ; . Pp
- Hiladelphia, 1872.—A new edition, originally from the Proceed-
iM
May,
Ill Asrronomy.
The Double Star Castor.—In the Astronomical Notices for
Mr, Wilson advances the somewhat startling idea that the
ceuPonents of the double star castor are describing an hyperbolic
the
bservations since 1740, when plotted, give an appar-
eo
nt orbit of eccentricity 2-2. The real orbit, he claims, has
Sccentricity 3-
necessi:
an
16. The recent observations show very decidedly
ity of extending the periodic time of the orbit, even if
78 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
Mr. Wilson’s views be not confirmed. The periods bes by
Sir John Herschel and Admiral Smyth were 253 and 240 years,
but Mr. Hind obtained in 1845 a period of 632 years, and 1 Captain
Jacob, in 1846, a period of 653 years. The observations since 1845
seem to r require a still further extension of the period, and may
require us to accept Mr. Wilson’s remarkable conclusions.
2. Meteorite of Ibbenbiihren, Westphalia; G. Rosr.—This
meteorite fell on the 17th of June, 1870. It is ‘peculiar in consist-
of si
Rose remarks that one other meteorite, that of Manegaum, inves-
tigated by Maskelyne, has essentially the same constitution (Si
55°70, Fe 20°54, Mg 22°80, Ca,1°32—-100°36); while two others con-
sist of a single mineral only, the Chassigny being made up of
olivine alone, and the Bishopville of ens eae
as Ibbenbihren mass is somewhat voidal, has a vise
ooth exterior rind, showing ee of fision: The len
nearly five inches (one- eighth of a r).
Meteorites of India. er rene AK has described two Indian
soedoiien One fell at Shergotty on the 25th of August, 1865,
and eloeny regen blas those of beanie (1807). It consists of
augite, a colorless tesseral silicate of the composition of labrador:
rite which has been named maskelynite, and atte his is
the first mention of the latter two at in a meteorite. The
other we Sic yitie gee on Ma 1865. It peeve ‘of nickel-
_iferous iron, ma ¢ pyrites, hiding chrysolite, bronzite, and
a feldsparlike Tbebiiee —Akad, Wiss. Wien, Feb., 1872.
TV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. Cause of the blue and violet chatoyant colors of Fishes.—
G. Povucurr finds that there is a constant anatomic cause for the
bluish uae violet rece color of some fis he es, There is under
under the m roscope. Pouchet coneludes that the color is due to
a sg of ach a —Acad. Sci., Paris, May, Les Mondes,
Jun
a ae in the blood.—BoussInGauLt finds the amount of metallic
iron in aliments as follows: the minimum, in carots, 0°0009 gram}
the maximum, in the blood of hogs, 0°0534 ; tS beer, 0040; in the
wine of Beaujolais Chios The ration of a Fren ch sailor in the
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79
of a horse of the reserve cavalry, 1:0166 gr.; of a cow, 1°365 gr.
In vertebrates the quantity of iron does not exceed a thousandth
of the weight ; in invertebrates, probably not four ten-thousandths.
It is usual to attribute the red color of the blood to the presence
of iron. Yet the white blood of invertebrates contains almost as
much iron as the red of vertebrates. Also, plants not green, like
mushrooms, contain as much iron he green plants. Boussin-
gault concludes that of all substances the blood is that which con-
tains the largest amount of iron, and of assimilable iron, since it
has already been assimilated.—Acad. Sci. Paris, May,
Mondes, June 6.
3. Prismatic bows on the surface of the Lake of Geneva.—On
February 11, between two and three o’clock, M. Elie Wartman
observed two concentric bows with the colors of the rainbow on
regularity ; and so vast was the quantity, that the current of the
Rhone took several days to carry it ott. —Z’ Institut, June 5,
esnut tree ( Castanea vesca).—Mr. ©. pv’ ErrincsHausEN
hay & recently been met with in the a vesca of the pres-
et time, and hence he concludes that the latter is a descendant
om the former,— iss. Wien, Feb., 187
5. Ueber krystallinischen Hagel im thrialethischen Gebirge, und
Uber die Abhingigkeit der Hydrometeore von der Physik des
hail of the Thrialeth mountains in the Caucasus, is a part o
Work entitled “Materialen zu einer Klimatologie des Kaukasus,
Pages to these subjects. It then describes a large number of hai
at occurred in the region, giving careful statements as to
8
a id
80 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
radiating planes; and over the eens large angular prismatic
crystals “stand out that are half an inch and larger in diameter,
nd i ore lon
ie Wirbelstiirme, Tornadoes und Fe eaenee in der Erd-
Atmosphiire, mit Beriicksichtigung der Stitrme in der Sonnen-
Atmosphire ; dargestellt und wissense ees erklért von Dr.
Turopor Reyes, Prof Univ. Strasburg. 248 pp. 8vo, with 4
st Sede eae and 30 etnies and lithographs. Hanover, 1872.
(Carl Riimpler.)—In this work Professor RES has treated the
subject of bona tapioca and waterspouts with great ful-
ness and s m. He resents the facts at length, discusses freely
some of his charts; and also cites freely from the papers of Pro-
a Loomis, ree and Piddington, and from various European
urces. He adopts the idea of cyclones, and ‘lhasenten the earth’s
apolonae by ae a and a fine plate illustrating bo cyclones
in the sun’s atmosphere. The frontispiece of the work is a copy
of Olmsted’s plate of “ Whirlwinds from the burning of a cane-
brake,” from II, vol. xi, of 86 8 ournal (1851). The work closes
with a list of books and articles on the subject of which it treats.
7. American Journal of Conaheen: ; GEORGE ae RYON, JF,
Editor.—The cover of the 4th number of vol. vii. announces that
sustained. The last number, like very man oy of those reiests. it,
eee, ep: Tims ala Faculté des Sciences de Dijon. From
Mem. Cour. of the Belgian Academy for 1872.—Prof. Eeerey, the
aniasieable investigator of earthquakes, here gives a re f
the facts connected with the earthquakes of ship Leen adding
20 to 60 pages, by Lee & Shepard, Bos ton. Price of foot, 25 cts.
—The first number of the series contains Proctor’s excellent paper
on “Strange Discoveries respecting the Aurora and Recent cn
Researches, and the second is an instructive lecture by Prof. R.
chow on “The Cranial ates of Man and the
preg out, or — as in progress, are of equal interest, and
give full assurance that the series will be a valuable addition to
any ible The. ae and printing are excellent.
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES]
Art. XIIL—On the Eva orative Efficiency of Steam Boilers; by
Wm. P. Tuowsnings, Professor of Dynamic Engineering
i the Sheffield Scientific School.
Transfer of heat.—The quantity of water which a steam
iler apparatus will evaporate In a given time sp gc
Prmarily upon the temperatures to which those parts 0 -
Gon Surface in a unit of time, and also on the kind of com-
; : : . . bined
“signating that in which no combustible gases or uncom
oxygen fh to the chimney. This condition is pres adie
0 give rise to the highest possible temperatures in the resi
of fuel, and in the escaping products. h i
© quantity of fuel burned, the constitution of the fellowine
and the resulting temperatures, depend on the following
Conditions ; »ina
: 7 The quantity of air which passes through the furnace in
nit of time, ‘ . ae
The amount of surface of the fuel with which this air
Comes in conta ithin +
The quantity of heat transferred to the water Aibogase 4c
boiler will then depend on the amount of heating su
Am. Jour. So1,—Turap Series, VoL. IV, No. 20.—Avaust, 1872.
6
82 W. P. Trowbridge— Efficiency of Steam Boilers.
exposed to direct radiation, the amount of heating surface
exposed to the contact of the gases, and the laws of absorption
or transfer of heat under these conditions.
The quantity of air supplied to the furnace, in a unit of time,
depends upon the chimney, or other apparatus for producing
the draft, and the surface of contact of air and fuel; upon
the kind of fuel, size of lumps, thickness of bed, etc. There
are other conditions which influence the evaporative efficiency
of boilers, when the total heat of combustion is to be compared
with the quantity of heat transferred to the water; such as the
losses from imperfect combustion, diffusion of heat, escape of
heat through the chimney, etc., making an aggregate of losses
which must be estimated.
The following general discussion of the problems involved is
given, as suggesting a mode of investigation which may lead to
more satisfactory experiments on the laws of transfer of heat.
Let Q represent the quantity of heat transferred to the water
of the boiler in a unit of time, one hour for instance
Q, the portion of this heat which is transferred by radiation
in the furnace.
Q. that part which is transferred by contact of heated gases
in the furnace.
Q, the part which is transferred by contact of heated gases
in the flues.
Then Q=Q,+Q,+Q,,.
In this expression, the first member may be regarded as
known, because it may be easily ascertained by experiment.
Of the terms of the second member, Q, represents the quantity
of heat transferred by radiation from the surface of the fuel.
According to the laws of Dulong and Petit, this quantity may
be represented by
Q,=¢xG=C. a® (a'—1).xG. 7
in which gq represents the quantity of heat transferred by
radiation from one square foot of grate surface in a unit of
time, G the grate surface in square feet, C a constant, a=1-0077.
6 represents the temperature of the absorbent body, or the water
in the boiler (a constant which may be determined by obser
vation), and ¢ the difference between this temperature and the —
fuel =
higher temperature of the incandescent
el. a.
By the law of transfer of heat by contact of gases, given by
Dulong and Petit, we shal] have
OE A oe CARE lon
¥ representing in square feet the furnace surface, O’¢,'"*° .
the quantity of heat transferred by contact of the gases in the
farnace in a unit of time; in which ¢, represents the difference of © :
temperature between the gases in the furnace, and the tem- —
W. P. Trowbridge—Efficiency of Steam Boilers. 83
perature, 6, of the water in the boiler; this difference being
constant for the whole furnace surface. It is presumed that the
law of Dulong and Petit for the cooling of bodies by contact of a
cooler gas is also the law of heating by a hot gas; the side on
Which the excess of temperature exists being a matter of
indifference,
_ For the transfer of heat by contact in the flues, the applica-
ton of the law renders it necessary to take into account the
diminution of temperature, from the initial temperature ¢, to
the temperature ¢,, of the gases, as they leave the flues and pass
into the chimney.
t the combined flue surfaces be represented by a single
cylindrical surface in
the form of a tube, as
Y in the figure below,
t peat and the other perpen-
dicular to it; and let
; —- t, be the difference of
ds gases and the water
j 1 outside of the tube,
th . at the entrance, and
4 the corresponding difference of temperature at the exit of
the gases,
_ Let ¢ represent the quantity of heat transferred in a unit of
Siok our) at any point of the tube from one unit (square
Sot) of surface. When a boiler is at work the temperature of
© gases at any pant or of the plates in contact with the gases,
ed as constant, and it will not, therefore, be
ined only when the surfaces of the plates undergo a change
Tr patare, as in getting up steam.
be dj the heating surface represented by the surface of the tube
t vided into elementary portions by planes perpendicular to
ee axis, the element of the surface between two planes may be
ee ented by ds, and the quantity of heat transferred by
Th, trough the element will be represented by gs. :
weight sca by c the specific heat of the gases, by W the
= hour), and by dt the element of time; it is evident that
ino oling of the gas in the time dé will be ¢ W dt, expressed
‘nits of heat, and this quantity must be equivalent to that
tt or absorbed by the water, represented above by gds:
tion expressed by the equation :
84 W. P. Trowbridge—Hficiency of Steam Boilers.
qds=cWdt from which FD Aoi’
Introducing now the law of Dulong and Petit, by sub-
- stituting for q its equivalent C’t'?**, the expression becomes
cWdt de t=? "#8 ai,
=O yrass me eW e
Integrating between the limits 4, and ¢, we obtain
8 a ih by PR lce
ae ~"333.(7
from which the value of ¢, may be obtained,
t= OWi ys eee
\cW —'233 0S. t, (298
In this expression S represents the whole heating surface of
the boiler, or the surface of the tube, a known quantity; 7, may
be ascertained by observation with a common thermometer.
But no accurate mode of ascertaining 4, by observation has
yet been found, and hence the necessity of this mode of deter-
mination.
In the second member of the equation the undetermined
quantities are W and C’, the first representing the weight of
gas which passes through the furnace in an hour, and the
second the constant C’ of the formula of Dulong and Petit.
e taken on the assumption, generally acquiesced in, that
in ordinary boilers the quantity of air which passes through the
furnace is just double the quantity necessary for perfect com-
bustion, and we assume for C’ the value given by Mr. Hopkins
for carbonic acid gas, the value of ¢, is completely determined;
and to find the initial temperature of the gases, it will be only
necessary to observe, with the aid of a common thermometer,
the temperature of the gases at their exit from the tube or
boiler. Having found 4, the quantity of heat transferred by
contact of the gases, in the flues, to the water, will be
represented by
W(4—2)-
c
The value of Q then becomes
Q=C. af. (a’—1). G+F. 0.4299 +¢W (4-4).
in which all the terms become known, except the first term of
' the second member.
The value of the expression G@XxC.a?(a'—1) being thus —
determined, the separate influence of the radiant heat of the
furnace becomes known, and the value of ¢, the difference of the
temperature between the fuel and the water, may, by the aid of
Hopkins’ value of C, be ascertained.
*
W. P. Trowbridge—Eficiency of Steam Boilers. 85
—1°233
Resuming the expression iba ay ic — if we suppose the
tube to be extended indefinitely and the gases to be forced
through the tube by some extraneous pressure, the difference
between the temperature of the gas within the tube and the
water would ultimately become zero.
Integrating the above expression between the limits 4, and 4
we should obtain an expression by which the relations of ¢ and
S. and of g and S. become known. t, the difference of tem-
perature at any point, will be t=O” and g=C” sr 3
S13
equations which indicate the form of curve of temperatures
along the axis of the tube, and also the form of curve of
emissions of heat along the axis. It is evident that these
i “and 0”
element in the problem. It seems evident that, according
€ present state of knowledge of the conductivity of gases, heat
must be transferred with excessive slowness, unless currents are
established in order to bring fresh particles of gas in contact
with the surface to be heated or cooled each instant.
y making use of an apparatus like the steam boiler it may
be possible to determine these constants, as well as the quantity
t..? for different dimensions of chimneys or force of dra
thickness of bed of fuel, etc. It would be necessary to make
the same
thickness of fuel on the grate, and under the same general con-
different values of the final temperatures might be obtained
observed. The quantity of a used being measured, the
+
86 W. P. Trowbridge—LKfficiency of Steam Boilers.
law of change of temperature, or of transfer of heat, might then
be ascertained for the flues and for the furnace separately.
If the laws of Dulong and Petit be true for high temperatures,
it is apparent that the influence of the furnace at high tem-
peratures must preponderate. Under any circumstances, it
seems impossible to find a scientific solution of the important
problem of efficiency of boilers in the generation and transfer
of heat, until these questions are solved.
e laws of Dulong and Petit have not been verified for high
temperatures. At very low temperatures the quantity of heat
transferred by contact of a gas and by radiation, agcording to
these laws, will be nearly identical, and the higher the tem-
perature the greater becomes the difference in the effects.
Common observation shows that to heat or cool a body
rapidly by contact of a gas, the gas must be supplied and
removed rapidly. It seems improbable, therefore, that there
can be any general expression for the quantity of heat trans-
ferred in this manner which does not involve this idea in somé
other way than by the constants which have been adopted
The mode of determining the initial temperatures of the fur-
nace and gaseous products of combustion generally employed,
up to the present time, has been to assume, from the partial ex-
periments of Péclet and others, that half the heat of combustion
is usually imparted to the gases, while half passes off as radiant
heat, and then to estimate the temperatures on the further
assumption that a definite known amount of air passes through
the furnace for each pound of coal burned. From the nature
and phenomena of combustion it can hardly be supposed that
any such law as that assumed by Péclet can be universally true.
The temperature of the residue of the solid combustible must
depend on the special circumstances of combustion in each
case, and especially on the law of radiation, at different tem-
peratures.
If it were possible to observe accurately the temperatures of
initial temperatures, analysis. A e mode of inves-
tigation herein suggested is offered as one which apparently
theory of heat, are questions which such investigation may —
help to solve. .
F. H. Bradley—Description of two new Land Snails. 87
The complete expression for the total heat of combustion of
fuel in the boiler will be
E=Q+E 1
: =Q, +Q, +Q, +Q,4+Q,
in which Q, represents the heat in the gases after they leave
the flues represented by « W (t,—2,), and Q, the losses from
external radiation, incomplete combustion, ete., which can only
ed.
*
be estimat
Arr. XIV.— Description of two new Land Snails from the Coal-
measures ; by F. H. BRADLEY.
of the so-called Zonites. The Pupawas evidently not P. vetusta ;
and the correction was sent to Prof. Worthen, but was over-
looked when my report on the county was printed. Upon
Showing the so-called Zonites, in its cleaned condition, to Mr.
B. B. Meek, he at once recognized it as congeneric with
& minute species, Anomphalus rotulus, descri y ee
and Worthen from Macoupin Co., Illinois (Proc. Phil. Acad.,
1866, p- 268). They refer the genus to the Rotellide: I am
Tather inclined to refer it to the Helicide.
append descriptions and figures.
Pupa Vermilionensis, n. sp., Fig. 1.
Shell imperforate, spindle-shaped, tapering to an obtu
®overed with fine ridges (25 or 30 to the millimeter)
btuse apex,
pon
with the lines of growth. Aperture onli ove rarely
‘olu-
com-
projecting about 4". Junc-
fon of columellar and outer lips sometimes angu-
lar and slightly dentiform. te old individuals, :
he columellar tooth is often continuous through an entire turn
°r farther—not seen on shells having less than three turns.
88 R. P. Stevens on Glacial Phenomena
Adult shells consist of five or six turns. Last turn forms nearly
half of the shell. Turns rounded. Suture impressed. Surface
glossy. Color bluish black.
Total length, 3°6™.; width, 2™.
Anomphalus Meeki, n. sp., Fig. 2.
small individuals. Outer lip thickened, slightly reflexed.
Suture slightly impressed. Each turn including only about
half of the preceding one, thus distinguishing the species from
A. rotulus, the type of the genus. Imperforate, but last turn
slightly excavated in the umbilical region. Last turn more
than half of the shell.
Total length, 3-2™.; width, 4™™.
eee
Art. XV.—On Glacial Phenomena in the vicinity of New York
City; by R. P. Srevens, M.D.
Tue evidences of a glacier once moving over the island of
New York are of three classes: 1st, The grooves or strise, an
other results of the abrasion of the rocks of the island, wherever
they are visible. 2nd, The mantle of drift which partially con-
ceals the rocks. 8rd, Facts observed over the hills of the
neighboring island of Long Island. All the evidences of the
first class show that the movement and agencies causing them
proceeded from the northwest toward the southeast. J have
made many examinations and measurements, from one end of
the island to the other, and have never found any single 1-
stance to the contrary. My observations have also extended
to Staten Island, New Jersey, and northwestward to the Dela-
ware river, and up the Hudson river on both shores—and_ also
over on the Highlands and mountains separating New York
State from the States of Connecticut and Mr
N. 30° W., or S. 20° E. toS 380° E. Prof. Cooke, in his re-
port on the Geological Survey of New Jersey, found ‘all his
measurements on the Palisades west of the Hudson river and
opposite New York to lie between N. 20° W. and N. 75° W-
e glacier, then, moved from the N.W., as Prof. Dana has
~
tn the vicinity of New York City. 89
demonstrated it did in New England. Following this north-
west direction from this island over the Highland range of
“Archean” rocks at the Ramapo Ga
evidences can be seen in the Pompton Gap, Dover, and at Lake
i nioong, NW: J,
me years ago I traversed the heights from this lake to
West Point on the Hudson, and everywhere the evidence of
some agent moving southeastward over them, rounding their
Summits, stossing them on their western slopes, was always pres-
ent before me. The sum of all this see Srl confirms Prof.
Dana’s theory of a glacial plateau on the highlands of Canada.
€ second class of evidence—the material composing the
mantle of drift—always shows it to have been transported from
the northwest. Both on this island and Long Island the material
s from rocks known to lie to the northwestward. Thus on the
island we find boulders and huge masses of the serpentine and
tap rocks of New Jersey blended with the red sand rock of the
same State. In Brooklyn on Long Island we find, in addition
to the rocks of New J ersey, those from New York island blen-
ded with the others. I have seen huge masses of anthophylite
In Atlantic street, Brooklyn, which must have come from the
Parent bed of this rock on 10th Avenue and from West 50th
to West 60th street. Careful measurement of the direction of
the movement which must have transported these rocks show
it to have been from N. 10° W. to S$. 10°E. This course tallies
With measurements made on the palisades by Prof. Cooke. The
asses of red
New Jersey to New York and Long Island. Many blocks in
the city, as at East 73d, East 74th, Hast 75th, and East, 76th
Streets, Third avenue, N. Y., lying beneath the surface soil, are
Pearance of being independent red deposits in the drift. _
The third class of evidence is the immense drift deposits on
Long Island, These stretch from Oyster Bay S. 60° W. to
Fort Hamilton, and over to Staten Island. Was not this ridge
2 terminal moraine? Through this moraine the Hudson river
teaks at the Narrows at almost right angles to the trend of
the Hudson valley.
The material composing this moraine is made up of detritus
from New Jersey and Manhattan Island. Boulders of trap,
and gneiss and granite cover all the surface east as far as Oyster
Y: The shore of Long Island between Oyster Bay and Smith-
town I have not aa, At the latter point, and along the
Long Island railroad, beyond Brushville, there is an absence of
all kinds of boulders. Underneath the surface the land is full
of boulders of trap and gneiss through all the moraine.
90 W. G. Mixter—Estimation of Sulphur in Coal.
On this island I have never seen any boulders of fossiliferous
rock. They have, however, been seen by others. On the Jersey
side I have seen them from the Corniferous limestone of the
Roundout valley. Now, as this rock is not seen in the lower
this class of evidence we may notice the boulders of granular
gneiss from Archean rocks of the Highlands, which I have
found as far east as East New York.
On the island of New York, in the deep excavations for sub-
cellars for blocks of buildings, we often find modified drift,
to the depth of twenty to thirty feet, entirely composed of clean
washed sands—derived from the sandstones of New Jersey.
New York, 24 Pine St., June 17, 1872.
a)
Art. XVI—Contributions from the Laboratory of the Sheffield
Scientific School. No. XXIV.—On the Estimation of Sulphur
in Coal and Organic Compounds; by W. G. MIxTER.
THE determination of sulphur in organic substances by many
of the methods in use is not only a difficult and tedious operation,
but the amount of fixed reagents often employed greatly in-
creases the liability to error. In the process here described, sub-
stances are burned in oxygen and the sulphur is condensed
from the gaseous products in the form of sulphuric acid.
Experiments made by passing the products of combustion of
sulphur-compounds through nitric acid failed to give satisfactory
results. A variable loss was due to a dense white fume containing
avoid this source of error. The bottle (a), see figure, has a :
capacity of from 4 to 10 litres, according to the amount of oxy-
gen required. The neck should be large enough for a oe
35 to 40 mm. in diameter. The condenser 6 is made of rather
thin tubing 14 mm. in diameter; at the upper end it is ex-
panded to a bulb in order to admit some motion to the tube
ed. Below the bulb it is surrounded by a water-jacket 22 cm.
high: from the point where it enters the stopper of the bottle it
is narrowed somewhat for convenience of fitting. The combus-
tion tube c d is made of hard glass of 12-15 mm. internal dia-
meter; the portion c is 18 em. from curve to curve, and is pro-
tected by a sheet-iron trough lined with asbestos; the part d 18
fom 35 to 45cm.in length. The wire attached at / is to sustain — :
W. G. Mixter—Estimation of Sulphur in Coal. 91
¢ in case d breaks; ¢ is joined to } by a collar of black-rubber.
The U-tube e is connected with d by a rubber collar drawn over
the latter atk; this U-tube is slightly inclined, that no liquid
may run against the rubber connectors. The tube / connects
@ with e; it is narrowed at both ends to 10 mm. diameter,
Near the upper end it is jointed by a piece of black-rubber
ce in order that the apparatus may be easily disconnected
m. i
Preferable—and the narrowed ends should be cut obliquely that
Tops j bber
ores and connections should be freed from adhering sul-
Phur by heating in a solution of sodium hydrate. The joints
92 W. G. Miater—Estimation of Sulphur in Coal.
of the apparatus are sufficiently tight when water will stand in
one limb of the safety tube. :
The bottle a is filled over water with oxygen, and, if necessary,
rinsed with distilled water; a few drops of bromine are poure
in, the tubes adjusted and aslow stream of water made to flow
through the water-jacket. The assay, if not volatile, is intro-
duced into the tube din a platinum tray*, which should not fill
more than half the bore of d, leaving space enough for the free
circulation of the oxygen. The partc is gradually heated and
kept hot during the combustion. This hot inclined tube acts
imney; the heated gases rise in it, pass into the cold
tube 4 and fall, thus causing a constant stream of gas to pass
over the assay. It is important to ignite the assay without
phuric acid are formed in much quantity, the volume is dimin-
ished and air enters through the safety tube.
mixed with sand in suitable proportion they burn slowly and
completely. Liquids shonle i
sealed at one end and drawn out at the other to a capillary bore
for two or three inches of length. Upon the point of the tube a
bit of platinum sponge is fixed to assist the oxidation. The
liquid should not fill more than two-thirds of the wider part
of the tub
Before introducing very volatile substances, the 10 cm. of
the combustion tube 7d should be heated to dull redness.
* A platinum tray which answers well may be made 10 to 20 em. long, 10 mm.
wide, and 7 to 10 mm. deep by bending thin foil over a glass tube. The ends may —
be roughly bent together or left open.
W. G. Miater—Estimation of Sulphur in Coal. 93
Oxygen is passed in at 7, the tubes are disjointed at & and the
tube holding the assay is then pushed in, till the platinum just
reaches the heated zone. The a paratus being connected at k
slow volatilization of the liquid is effected by cautiously apply-
when the =p pene is disconnected at & to remove the tray or
rops of it should be poured through a funnel-tube
deposition of the sulphuric acid.
he tubes d and ¢ are then rinsed into a beaker, this water is
poured into 6, which is then thoroughly washed by the aid of
the wash-bottle: the large rubber stopper is lifted from the
bottle and the lower part of } rinsed; without removing the
the bottle is carefu y washed. The solution obtained, whic
weed not exceed 500 ce. is evaporated to a small volume,
filtered if necessary and the sulphuric acid precipitated by barium
chloride. The barium sulphate washes easily, as the solution
Contains no nitrates or iret salts. Its purity is ascertained by
treatment with water and a few drops of chlorhydric acid, warm-
ing some time, gc and sews hinia In case the substance
leaves an ash or residue in the tray, this must be dissolved
there is no danger from explosions if care be taken to have the
Combustion tube hot enough to ignite combustible vapor.
the substance in the apparatus.
€ writer found that when oxygen prepared from a mix-
ture of potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide, or from the
chlorate alone (no rubber stoppers or connections being em-
loyed) stood of
Tomine and a little water, the water gave a slight turbidity
with barium chloride. Neither the bromine nor the solution
of the chlorate gave reactions for sulphuric acid ; the mangauese
94 W. G. Mixter—Estimation of Sulphur in:Coal.
of aleohol and of sugar-charcoal made by the method here de-
seribed, yielded with barium chloride, a precipitate apparently
no ereater than that obtained from the oxygen alone, an
slight to influence headed results. This shows that with suit-
able care rma stoppers are not objectionable.
The following results, obtained in the order they are given,
show the applicability of the method, while some of the details
mentioned may help to explain the use of the apparatus.
Weight taken. Per cent. found.
0°0658 51°20
ti Iron pyrites (mixed with car roi cee
2. Cust Sei. | OORT 51°26
3. Sulphur, cis ay ye Be eens caer we ey cre eon 0°2070 99°76
4 : ere els 0°2807 99°92
6. sf Wane cis OAOD 99°93
6. M ghiki Gees Meliliew MOG te a omie - 0°5882 100°02
7, Carbon disulphide, .. .- 6c ds aes 0°7725 84°12
8. Deieiad se pistol Mine ymin 0°4598 84°16
Me SOUNONE OR 0°6640 2°97
1] eae pence Sr 0°7860 2°99
11. Wool, 5 goes OOO 3°44
a DEA AS hes ate fe 0°4675 3°46
13 Tobacco, eiv en cues lca een mene on 2°0720
iota 2°1370
. 0°36
Nine liters of oxygen were used in Nos. 1, 2, 13 and 14, and
four liters in each of the other analyses.
o. 1 the iron pyrites was mixed wei 13 gr., and in No.
aqua regia, after evaporation. honing ni dryness to “aap the
excess of acid, gave no turbidity with barium chloride. The
sulphur in this pyrites was estimated by another method by
way of control.* This mixture of pyrites with charcoal was
* The analyses of pyrites were mostly made by a modification of the method
of sprig and Pearson ee Journal, xviii, 190). The pulverized | dron pyrites
he - was mix ate, about
26 ec. nee acid, Sp. gr. T -40 were then added to ie mixed powders, a my whole
was heated cautiously but not to boiling, for fear of melting the sulphur which
separated. complete solution was obtained in five n minutes. It was
evaporated to dryness and the evaporation twice repeated with the addition, of
water, was then dige with three separate portions of Asem acetate, a
the washing was continued with water till sulphuric acid gave no turbidity in ‘the
washings. These precipitates after ignition yielded no ah. ralhgpan to hot dilute
chlorhydric acid; they were slightly reddish in color, and the sulphur
from their weight amounted to 51°69 and ~ Deg cent. rg ae vely
In two other — tions, potassium ure tartaric acid
being at hand) and chlorhydric acid were added “A the sao Betore precipita-
ting, with the . of retaining the iron in solution more perfectly; the barium-
W. @. Mixter—Estimation of Sulphur in Coal. 95
used as an imitation of coal, which should contain a known
amount of sulphur.
The sulphur used in Nos. 8, 4, 5 and 6 was purified by erys-
tallization from carbon disulphide solution and fused. It was
ase in a narrow weighed glass tube from 5 to 7 cm. long,
led, allowed to cool and the whole weighed. During the
combustion of No. 4, the sulphur volatilized so rapidly at one
time that a portion escaped unburned, and formed a coating in
1€ carbon disulphide was the commercial article purified
by distillation from calcium chloride and quick lime. he
three inches long with a very fine bore. The end of this neck
was broken off, and the open point was thrust into a cylinder
of platinum sponge wrapped in foil, and the whole was quickly
Placed in the combustion tube as has been described.
yee powdered bituminous coal was burned in a tray. In
Exp. No. 10 some tarry matter passed into the condenser. No
sulphur was found in the reddish ash, which amounted to
5°57 and 5-29 per cents.
The wool was from South Down sheep. It was purified by
washing with soap and afterward with ether, and was dried at
212°, “Wool swells so by heat that it cannot conveniently be
burned in an open tray. No. 11 was contained in a glass tube
Sealed at one end. After the volatile matters had been burned
off, the tube was taken from the apparatus, the closed end was
soxen and the charred residue mostly transferred to a tray,
which together with the tube was returned to the combustion
Sulphate was treated as above described. The precipitates had notwithstanding a
The h color and corresponded to 51°78 and 51°63 per cent. of sulphur respectively.
y yh d were accordingly free fr
elded nothing to dilute chlorhydric acid
7 g barhvin-ealta ey : paca ing to ion of Mitscherlich
(Jour. Prakt Chem. 83, 456), dissolved in strong sulphuric acid, thrown down by
", wash again weighed. They were now free from and
-
ferric oxide was slightly washed with water, then fused wi
ae aneously in the Am. Kd. of Fresenius’ Quantitative Analysis, p. 525, from
x, 59, vnished by Prof, Allen, and in a paper by Fresenius in his Zeitschrift,
96 W. G. Mixter—Estimation of Sulphur in Coal.
tube to complete the oxidation. In No. 12 a small platinum
tube, extemporized from foil, closed at one end by a glass plug,
was employed.
The pulverized tobacco of No. 13 was burned in an open
tray, and the combustion occupied less than five minutes. A
small amount of hydrocarbons passed over unconsumed, and
owing to the intense heat a white sublimate formed above and
senius has conclusively shown in a late paper.t This method
of ao the barium ee has 8 the sanction of
t is not probable that barium bromide would resist
treatment which removes the chloride. In the analyses given the
writer added barium chloride slowly to the concentrated boiling
solution, and after twelve hours or more decanted the
supernatant liquid, boiled the precipitate with two or more
portions of water and washed with hot water till sulphuric acid
gave no turbidity in the washings. The precipitate washed
rapidly, and an hour to an hour and a half generally sufficed
for the jorge ones. In purifying the larger precipitates, they
were placed in a beaker with from 50 to 100 ce. water and a few
drops acid. Any lumps were broken up by a rod, and the whole
was boiled half an hour ormore. The smaller precipitates were
treated in the crucibles. In all cases the purifying was contin-
ued till sulphuric acid gave no reaction for barium salts in the
last filtrate. The precipitates, weighing from 2 to 4gr., lost by
aigeenng with dilute chlorhydric acid from 0°007 to 0-020 gr.
0 Professors Johnson and Allen I desire to return thanks
for their assistance and for many valuable suggestions.
Sheffield Laboratory, July 1st, 1872.
* Caldwell’s Agricultural Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis, p. 246.
+ Zeit. fir Anal. Chem., Bd. ix,s.52. — Zeit. far Anal. Chem., Bd. x, s. 396.
J. D. Dana—Address of T. Sterry Hunt. 97
‘
Art. XVIL—On the Address before the American Association of
Prof. T. Sterry Hunt; by James D. Dana. No. IL
THE aim of Professor Hunt in the latter section of his
Address was apparently to show that all writers on metamor-
phism. were deeply in error, except himself and a small circle
of honored savants sufficient in number for a new School in
that department of science. And in my reply it was my pur-
pose, laudable, as I thought, to let him know that Delesse and
aumann were not to be depended on for the school ; and,
further, to show that the views of the outsiders were not altoge-
ther “ contrary jargon,” as he, in his intense love of truth (2.e,
Ais truth) had said, hoping by this last to quiet that vexation
of spirit which had been excited by the alleged “ sophistries.”
But in the reply to my criticisms (page 41 of this volume) Mr.
Hunt still persists in denouncing multitudes of men for
Opinions they do not hold, and in claiming Delesse and Nau-
mann as on his side. He throws out long statements against
my eleven positions; yet, I have to say, without essentially
Weakening Xs The multitudes do not need my further aid
in their defense; and still it seems best once more to state the
ts with regard to Professor Hunt’s misreadings and misrepre-
Sentations. It is plain that for some reason he is yet unable to
read rij py the opinions of others. es
I will, therefore, set forth again those of my objections to
Which Prof, Hunt has replied, following the order nearly of his
paper, and add such remarks as seem necessary.
Objection 1. That Professor Hunt, while accepting the ordinary
pews on the origin of most pseudomorphs, rejects them with respect
to many silicates, such as those consisting of serpentine, steatite, and
Pimie—I gave the reasons why crystals of serpentine and other
similar seudomorphs are not true crystals, mentioning facts that
the fact. ‘The comp $ 00
S0'on the erystallographer. The change of a crystal making it
2 pseudomorph is simply a chemical change without a change
of form by means of hot or cold mineral solutions or vapors
(agents that have been common in the course of the earth’s
history ); and since very many such changes, as Mr. Hunt admits,
have taken place among species not silicates, some of them yet
Am. Jour, oe Srzres, Von, IV, No. 20.—Aveust, 1872.
~
98 J. D. Dana—Address of T. Sterry Hunt.
unexplained, the above argument is poor support for the conelu-
sion that they may not have occurred among silicates. | In this
country no investigator of pseudomorphs has shown any leaning
toward Mr. Hunt’s “more rational” view, and only one or two
in Kur
But, dahon the gradations in the transmutation have been
in many cases seen, if not watched, so that direct observation
Objection 2. That Mr. Hunt ane that Delesse sustains &
“ theory of envelopment,” as a substitute for the ordinary “ — gy
pseudomorphism,” and in this denies Delesse’s own statem
From the example just mentioned it is plain what is here oa
by envelopment—that it is mixture from cotemporaneous erystalli-
zation. A considerable part of Prof. Hunt’s reply on the above
point is an endeavor to make what Delesse says on envelopment
in crystals a substitute for what he says on pse eudomorphism ;
when the truth is reached by taking Delesse’s word for it, that
his chapter on envelopment is nga to the omer yt a
* In my former paper I u sent instead of the word sustains, the expressi
author of. r. Hunt claims rightly that Ricdieater first brought out the ‘ee of a
kind of envelopment. But, as is obvious above, the question of autho
and this
envelopment, as thus employed, is from him. Moreover, hier a) envelop
ment” did not embrace Scheerer’s principle, which was that of isomorp.
Mr. Hunt has it, in this Journal, Il, xvi, 217, Scheerer had in view a Sraltaneat
crystallization of two is hous species, as, for instance, a se and anhydrous
silicate (iolite and fahlunite in the same crystal being an example). But Delesse’s
envelopment is a mixture; he has no allusion in his chapter on envelopment
eat Aa prontiea Wes, n the associated m nt’s sentence in his Ad-
dress (p. 47), claiming t that Delesse’s view in his work on Pecudcmocetans is
identical with the view suggested by Scheerer,” is therefore at fault. Delesse,
later in the volume, mentions Scheerer’s principle as a possible case under his
Ma cas cg oN ome ollows: ‘If, as Scheerer has remarked, water acts as a
in silica anhydrous and hydrous silicates may cry ther and be
iomorphous "aud then follows the single example of the association of hornblende
euphotide.
+ Tholeess ak at the close of his chapter on pobnigcent © “Ce préambule
t nécessaire
Yenveloppement des minéraux étai pour | gence du pers
. mo maintenant n
rphisme, qui va convboupee”
J. D. Dana—Address of T. Sterry Hunt. 99
showing of what is not a pseudomorph preparatory to explaining
what is; and observing, also, that this second part, the main
part of the work, is treated, with the exception of a few
examples unessential to the point in dispute, just as is done b
Haidinger and all other writers on pseudomorphs, and contains
a table, many pages long, of true cadadomorghs in which are
those of serpentine, gieseckite (var. of pinite), steatite or tale,
septolite and chlorite, besides other silicates. There is no fog in
Delesse’s statements on this point. r. Hunt cites some
seemingly opposing sentences from Delesse: but these relate to
the exceptions, cases that for the most part are generally ad-
mitted to be doubtful; they do not touch the species above-
mentioned, those with regard to which Mr. Hunt would be glad
to gather support from Delesse.
Prof. Hunt says that Delesse’s views underwent a change
about 1861, as appears in his work on metamorphism then pub-
lished, in which Delesse “adopts” Mr. Hunt's view, that beds
of serpentine have been formed from the alteration of chemically
posited beds of a hydrous magnesian silicate related to
Sepiolite (meerschaum). But the evidence is positive that,
while Delesse accepted this hypothesis for beds of serpentine, he
did not change his views on serpentine pseudomorphs. For in
‘ear his paper on metamorphism appeared, after citing a long
‘st of cases of envelopment from an article by Séchting, he
¢
ees ip. 169) his chapter on pseudomorphs with the followin
ien qu'elle soit plus ou moins modifiée dans sa composition et
méme entiérement remplacée par une autre substance, il se
q
la géologi goes so
far as to say (and this in 1866, it should be noted) that pseudo-
morphic changes have often taken place on a grand scale, as has been
“specially remarked by G..B 3
& word of protest or objection, just as he did in his treatise of
100 J. D. Dana—Address of T. Sterry Hunt.
1859. Again, in the Review published in 1872, after stating
the fact of the occurrence of m magnetite in mica, ascertaine y
Prof. Brush, as an example of envelopment, he next mentions a
pseudomorph of tale after enstatite. Thus he declares his
belief in the old views to the present year, excepting, as I have
said, only a few species not bearing on the question here under
consideration. Delesse, in adopting in 1861 the by pote
with regard to beds of serpentine just stated, did not assume
or imply that serpentine pseudomorphs or poser were so
was aware that the method was wholly in-
pseudomorph of chrysolite had been made by the
alteration, not of a hydrous magnesian silicate, but of a crystal
opinions by “‘ hazarding the amd “4 “nd Delesse wrote his
views on envelopment and petaeOrphie “while he still
inclined to the views of the opposite school.” Thus, Delesse’s
direct and consistent account of his views is set aside on the
ground of stupidity, or his not knowing clearly what he
believed—a damning apology for Delesse, Engineer-in-Chief of
the Mines of France, if it were needed: but, not needed, most
damaging to the argument of his apologist.*
OssEcTION 3. That Prof: Hunt makes Naumann sustain the
theory of envelopment, when, in fact, this veteran teach
and mineralogist presents the ordinary views on pseudomorphism
tn the successive editions of his Mineralogy down. to ais last of of 1871.
In reply to this Mr. Hunt adds one more sentence to the citation
in his Address from Naumann’s published letter to Delesse.
But Naumann’s letter related only to Delesse’s ideas on envelop-
ment, and is utterly misused by Prof. Hunt. I repeat from my
former article that Naumann’s chapter on Pseudomorphism
contains not a word on envelo — i val it does eg the
old views; and his work is full o: rye according there-
with. Even fahlunite and some how es are admitted to
be (p. 455, note) products of the alteration of iolite,t contrary
to Sikacer and Hun
* In my review, I did not say, as as Mr. Hunt implies, that Delesse does not in any
way countenance the views of Mr. Hunt, for I remarked that he did agree with him
with regard to the ese hae of serpentine, and with respect to the envelop-
ment nature of a few of the kinds of pseudomorphs; but I did say that with
to pseudomorphs of serpentine and all the species under dispute, as well as most
other kinds, mie ake regard to the use to be made of the facts under envelopment,
Delesse h i opposite views to those of Mr.
¢ Nauman, ts icon aeice omen to th his Mineralogy of 1871, alludes to
Haidinger’s “ excellent article” on the relations of fahlunite, chlorophyllite, pinite,
J. D. Dana—Address of T. Sterry Hunt. 101
Mr. Hunt protests against expressions cited by him from
Naumann and Delesse being “set aside because éraces of the
doctrine of epigenic pseudomorphism still hold a place in the
last edition of Naumann’s Mineralogy, or in the ‘Revue de
Géologie,’ of which Delesse is one of the authors.” Traces / when
4 systematic statement of facts on pseudomorphism essentially
after the old views is the object of each! Stl
Delesse and Naumann might well be excused for some vex-
ation of spirit after such “ sophistries” personal to them, and,
probably, if they were to speak out, they would show their
vexation without the use of poetry.
OBsection 4, That Prof: Hunt grossly misrepresented the views
nearly every writer on pseudomorphism in saying that the
doctrine of Gustaf Rose, Haidinger, Blum, Volger, Rammeisberg,
Dana, Bischof, and many others, leads them to maintain the
possibility of converting almost any silicate into any other; and
adding, in the same paragraph, that “in this way we are led from
gneiss or granite to limestone, from limestone to dolomite, and from
dolomite to serpentine, or more directly from granite, granulie or
te to serpentine at once, withoul passing through the inter-
Mediate stages of limestone and dolomite.” ia 7.
Prof. Hunt seems to think that he meets the objection in
Saying (page 50) that— : :
Hatpincer and others have held to the conversion of lime-
stone to dolomite ;
- Rosz, Buu and the writer, to that of dolomite and some
ie aa Tocks to serpentine, or to talcose, steatitic or chlorite ~
ISt ;
RAMMELSBERG :
Bio, again, to that of limestone to granite or gneiss, when
this author has nothing of the kind in his works, and the
gen, ————I_f ag
But this gathering of objections from the opinions of a
Variety of individuals, and then sharsine: the whole, with the
help of a few lines of poetry (see p 4) on
col ectively, while it may be a smart thing to do, is not the
course to give success to the truth, With scarcely an
©Xception, all writers on the subject under consideration, Nau-
mann and Delesse included, have a right to feel badly at being
*° summarily knocked over in ten-pin style.
€tc., to iolite [showing that they are altered iolite], and then observes that these
minerals are to be marked as independent species only i so far as ' 7
Nanna, 00st or phases in the Bocmneltion of iolite.” There is no mistaking
102 J, D. Dana—Address of T. Sterry Hunt.
But the most extraordinary feat is Mr. Hunt’s making out
that the writer has virtually sustained the view of the metamor-
phosis of granite or gneiss to limestone (p. 50), when, as I said
before, it is an idea that never entered my head until the
reading of Mr. Hunt's caricature of the subject. The proo
which he gives is remarkable. In the first place, he says that
my Mineralogy contains the fact that calcite is sometimes found
pseudomorphous after quartz; and, in another place, the fact
that calcite is found pseudomorphous after feldspar. Hence
the conclusion, granite or gneiss to limestone. Q. KE. D. |
Now, if the facts respecting the pseudomorphs were facts,
it would still require great constructive powers to make out.
rom the statements the conclusion that I ever held to the
‘‘metamorphosis of granite or gneiss into limestone.” But,
as to the facts: (1) The mineralogy does not mention any case
of the pseudomorphism of calcite after quartz; and (2) the
pseudomorphs of calcite after feldspar are spoken of as examples
not of an alteration of the feldspar, but of its removal, and the
substitution of calcite (4th edit., p. 249, and also 5th edit.,
p. 861). Now, by this substitution process, the above-mentioned
metamorphosis would consist (supposing fact No. 1 to be a fact,
and that mica crystals may be similarly changed to calcite,
which Mr. Hunt omits to include) in a removal of all the
materials of the granite by a process of solution, and the co-
temporaneous or subsequent substitution of calcite !
All will admit that the use of facts and not-facts exhibited in
_ the above charge is most extraordinary ; and can judge from it,
* It is to be noted that serpentine pseudomorphs are sometimes pseudomorphs
by substitution, as well as by alteration. Hither method is a result of “ epigenic”
change, since it is produced by the action of external chemical agents. ©
J. D. Dana—Address of T. Sterry Hunt. 103
ere ie * “The same causes that have originated the steatitic scapo-
lites, occasional] picked out of the rocks, have given magnesia to whole
rock-formations, and altered throughout their physical and chemical charac-
ters. If it be true that the crystals of serpentine are pseudomorphous crys-
ig altered from chrysolite, it is also true, as Breithaupt has suggested, that
covering square leagues in extent, and common in most primary formations.
The beds of steatite, the still more extensive talcose formations, contain
everywhere evidence of the same agents.”—This Journ., xlviii, 92, .
Besides this paragraph, expressive of my views, Mr. Hunt
Cites also another of the same purport from my Mineralogy of
oe and in this, also, I see little to modify. It is as follows:
at—
my simply of alteration of crystals, but in 7 !
ot rock. [Delesse admits this; see p. 99.) Th
Mountain-masses, or the simple crystal, has been formed through a process of
Pseudomorphism, or in more general language, of metamorphism ; the same is
ed of other magnesian rocks, as steatitic, talcose or chloritic slates. Thus
d € subject of metamorphism, as it bears on all crystalline rocks, and of pseu-
a are but branches of one system of phenomena.”—WMin., 4th edit.
b] a
The larger part of the kinds of alteration or metamorphism
made out against authors by Prof. Hunt, on pages 50, 51 of his
article, are of this magnesian class, the results being serpentine,
8 of caleite from gneiss or or or the reverse, until we so
104 J. D. Dana—Address of T. Sterry Hunt.
my Manual of Geology published in 1863.—Mr. Hunt's reply
to this is simply that I once held the view and have never
formally retracted it—as if presenting other views in a form
chapter on the subject were not a sufficient retraction. As to
my own expression of the doctrine that “ metamorphism is
pseudomorphism on a broad scale,” he erie out a fact I had
overlooked when writing my former article. I examined the
Mineralogy, and all my papers in this Journal, in search of the
line above cited, and failed to find it because of its occurrence
only in a short book notice. I did not deny having used it,
though ignorant where or when, but only asserted that it was
not in the Mineralogy. The statement in my article as to the
views contained in the Mineralogy (4th ed.) is strictly correct.
My general expressions in that work are strong; but I mention
as examples, under those views, no rocks except serpentine
and other ose rocks; and to these, as I have said, I still
< it. See, for my views in 1854, the sentence on the pre-
ceding page, cited from it. Moreover T state, in the same chap-
ter ter (p. pe that few will follow Bischof in all ‘his methods of rock-
Peo, 6. That Prof: a points out the existence of a Green
Mountain series of rocks, and a White Mountain series, basing his
F sbaaee largely on lithological evidence, without any sufficient
We oP tee: evidence, and without properly defining the limits of
e two regions.—Mr. Hunt's reply to these objections are con-
fred to ne points. (1.) In opposition to my remark “ that
there are gneisses, mica schist ati chloritic and talcoid schists
in the Taconic series,” he says “that Emmons, the author of the
Taconic system, expressly excluded there from the crystalline
rocks.” This exclusion is an easy feat for a speculator with pen
in hand, like many closet feats; but it is more than herculean in
actual fact, since the v ery Taconic mountains themselves, that
is, the very rocks called Taconic by Emmons, are partly gneiss,
gneissoid mica schist, and chloritic eg schist, as well as
taleoid schist; and these rocks are so involved together that
eculation will never bring them into a that kind of order which
Mr. ee “notions ” require
2.) To my enquiry whether a ny oe has proved by careful
Seeeach | that crystals of stauro oy cyanite or andalusite are
restricted to rocks of a certain geological period, Mr. Hunt
pony that ‘‘it has not yet been proved that they belong to
ter period than the one already indicated” (the Pre-cam-
fan: ; and that “it is only by bringing together observations,
as I have done, that we can ever hope to determine the geologi-
oe value of these mineral fossils.” Now the fact is that those
me Taconic rocks, unquestionably of the Taconic et Seago
onal to Emmons himself, and, therefore, Hunt attesting, ©
J. Hall on a question of Priority. 105
Lower Silurian age, contain in some places staurolite crystals.
Percival first noticed the fact, and states this even of the rocks
of Mt. Washington, the main part of the Taconic range. He
speaks of the rock of “ Taconic mountain” as fine-grained mica-
ceous or talco-micaceous schist, containing garnet and staurolite ;
and adds, “sometimes it is greenish and subchloritic, with
seams and patches of compact green chlorite, and yet accom-
panied with the same minerals [garnets and staurolites]. This
18 particularly the case in the south and northeast part of Ta-
coni¢ mountain.” Hence staurolites, and chlorite also, occur
in rocks admitted to be Silurian.
-) Mr. Hunt denies that he makes, in his Address, “ the
crystalline schists of the White Mountains a newer series than
the Green Mountain rocks.”—I had read on pages 29 and 33 of
the Address approving announcements that Macfarlane had
made the crystalline rocks of the Green Mountains Huronian ;
and then, on page 84 of the Address, the statement that the
White Mountain series is largely developed in Newfoundland,
and that this fact had led him (Mr. — to propose for it [the
year before] the name of the Jerranovan System. At this point
Mm the Address there is a referenve to this Journal of the pre-
ceding year, vol. 1, p. 87, 1870; and consequently by referring
ck to this article by Mr. Hunt, I found this Terranovan de-
fined, Mr. Hunt saying that, according to Mr. Murray, the serie’
Comprises “ aavetal thomnaie feet of strata, including soft bluish-
ray mica slates and micaceous limestones belonging to the
otsdam group, besides a great mass of whitish granitoid mica
Slates whose relation to the Potsdam is still uncertain.”
Huronian is older than the Potsdam, and this equivalency of the
‘tranovan is not corrected in the Address, I thought I had
reason for supposing that Mr. Hunt made the White Mountain
Series the newer. I acknowledge I prefer the view he now
Presents, since the less definite the statement the better as long
48 we have no sufficient facts for a conclusion.
—
Arr. XVII.— Reply to a “ Note on a question of Priority ;"* by
James HALL.
Iv the April number of this Journal there is published an
article with the above title, in which the author questions the
fact of publication of a small pamphlet entitled “Notes on
Some new or imperfectly known forms among the Brachio-
oe perhaps owe to myself and to the scientific public a
few words in reply.
ey E. B nestion, essentially in the same
Srl ad manera to or more arses the Canada’ Natural
106 J. Hall on a question of Priority.
Dr. Lindstrém, Dr. ela Prof. DeKoninck, Dr. F. Roemer,
Edward Desor, Dr. A. yon Vo Iborth, and the Tmperial Society
of Naturalists of oe These, with one exception, were
sent in_packages with other publications, through the Smith-
soman Institution, and are marked in my list as having been
forwarded from Albany on the 7th of April, 1871. The: pam-
phlet is noticed in the Jahrbuch for 1871, p. 989.
On the 7th of April, 1871, the printing establishment of
Weed, Parsons & Co. was destroy ed by fire, together with the
23d Report on the State Mac eens (printed to nearly 200 pages),
the lithographic stones, and ster diine else pertaining to that
work. In the confusion which followed, and with the neces-
sity on the part of the State printer to furnish certain docu-
ments as soon as possible, no attention was given to the State
Museum Report for several months. Had there existed in my
mind the least doubt about publication, I should naturally gee
Deuce an additional ab
asily have been done at any printing dffice, It has usually
attention.
From the tenor of Mr. Billings’ statements in this Journal and
especially in the Naturalist, any reader would suppose that I
had borrowed specimens from the Canadian Geological Survey
on which to found my descriptions, or conclusions, concerning
the genera there published as RuyNosBoivs and Drvono1.us,
and then endeavored to keep him in ignorance of what I h
done. This would certainly have been an absurdity, and more-
over it is not true. The only specimens borrowed of the Sur-
vey, having the remotest relation to RHYNOBOLUS, were of Zr7-
* If the fact of being on sale with booksellers is necessary for publication, the
question could certainly be raised regarding all the State Museum Reports; for
the State of New York has never authorized their sale.
J. Hall on a question of Priority. 107
merella. _ I wished to compare authentic specimens of the latter
with Dinobolus, which under the name of Obolus Conradi had
been stated by Mr. Dall to be a true Trimereila. The idea of
designedly keeping Mr. Billings in ignorance of what I had
done would have been simply silly and purposeless.
The question regarding these oboloid forms had occupied
my attention for a long time; and in 1862, I wrote to Mr.
Davidson my views of 0, Conradi,* sending a description and
figures. Thus this was no new idea of mine; but the progress
of my work in 1871 required some action on my part in order
to prepare the supplementary plates of vol. iv, Pal. N. Y., an
these were among the things to be first done. Obolus Canaden-
sis I did desire to see, for I had known since 1854 that it
was a bew and distinct genus; and Mr. Selwyn did say that
Mr. Billings was at work at O. Canadensis, but did not mention
any Galt specimens or species. Mr. Billings says that his
genus Obolellina “is intended to include at least one of the forms
cribed” by him as “Obolus Canadensis.” It may include also
Ruynozouvs, but I think that has not yet been shown by Mr.
Billings’ figures.
8 an explanation of applying on “two occasions,” 1 may
Say that I understood Mr. a
‘King no advantage of Mr. Billings in any way, for neither
himself nor Mr, Selwyn had indicated his intention in regard to
alt specimens, and those which I used had been in my pos-
S€ssion since 1848
* In my letter to i of date 31st October, 1862, I wrote—“I enclose
= drawings of fret eet: as w genus of Brachiopoda. Tn some
resbects it is like Oxotus, but is a large calcareous shell, in my opinion of quite a
type. I had originally communicated the description in my Wisco’ as Ri va
ard withdrew it. Please give me your opinion of it.
Propose the name Conradia for this fossil.” :
108 J. Hall on a question of Priority.
In my letter to Mr. Selwyn, of the 10th of April, 1871,
alluding to my work, I said, “ The question of the Linguloid
shells, OBoLUS and TRIMERELLA, was one requiring early
determination ;” and it was for this reason that I had desired to
see the Canadian forms. I was certainly under the impression
that I had previously given Mr. Selwyn full information of
what I proposed to do; but if otherwise, this letter of the 10th
of Apnl was sufficient; and if after that no pamphlet was
received, it seems a little remarkable that Mr. Billings should
wait till the 30th of January following before making any fur-
ther inquiries about it.
On the 23d of February, 1872, during my absence from
Albany, a letter was received from Mr. Davidson, of date Feb-
ruary 8th, in which my attention was called for the first time
any “unfortunate collision,” nor of any cause for the succes-
sion of statements in the last page and a half of Mr. Billings’
article against me, that “it is not my fault that this difficulty
has arisen,” ete.
It has unfortunately happened, in nearly all cases where I
have proposed new genera during the last ten or fifteen years,
that I have, according to Mr. Billings’ expressed opinions,
infringed upon his rights, or violated some rule of scientific
rocedure.*
I fully admit that the party at fault in this or any other case
should be the sufferer. Mr, Billings has inaugurated and thus
far managed both sides of what he denominates “this controv-
ersy,” with his usual tact and adroitness. I have said nothing,
while he has published I believe three or four articles on the
subject. I have entered into no controversy, and hope to be
saved from one. It will not distress me if my name of RHYNO-
BOLUS should not be adopted. Unquestionably the pamphlet
should have been reprinted at once after the fire; but im such @
condition of things as then existed, every one is naturally ab-
sorbed in what appears to be the present duty, and may easily for-
* For example, TRIPLESIA, RENSSELAERIA, MERISTELLA, STROPHODONTA, etc.
C. U. Shepard—Corundum of N. Carolina and Georgia. 109
with a request to withdraw the name Ruynosoxvs, I would
euetetngly have done it, so far as in my power; and it
wou v
With regard to the accusations and insinuations of dishonest
eg and practices, to which I at first felt inclined to reply,
shal] say nothing at this time.
Albany, N. Y., May, 1872.
Arr. XIX.—On the Corundum region of North Carolina and
Georgia, with descriptions of two gigantic crystals of that species ;
by Cartes Upnam SHEPARD, Sr., Prof. of Natural History
in Amherst College, Mass.
»easuring one and a quarter inches in diameter
in height, said to have come from a gold mine in
Ga. About the same period, I was indebted to the Hon.
er "
No farther discoveries of the kind appear to have attracted atten-
fon until the last two or three years. Within this period, how-
ever, under the stimulus of discovering an improved descrip-
or emery, many n :
brought to light in this region, of two or three of which I pro-
Pese to give some account, derived from the examination of
numerous specimens, and from information affo y Rev.
C.D. Smith and Col. ©. W. Jenks of F. Macon county,
110 CU. Shepard—Corundum of N. Carolina and Georgia.
N. Car., two gentlemen to whom we are chiefly indebted for the
developments thus far made.
e corundum localities are already known to occupy a
has been called, will hereafter be much extended. It is situa-
ted in a sub-alpine country, partly within the northeastern cor-
ner of Georgia, and extending thence, in the direction of the
erest of the Blue Ridge, into several contiguous counties of
North Carolina. Beginning for example, in the northeastern
corner of Jackson Co. (N. Car.), Mr. Smith sketches it, as run-
ning in a southwesterly course across Macon Co., where it strikes
the Georgia State line, its general direction coinciding with
the trend of the Blue Ridge until it reaches the head of Tennes-
whence it pursues its original course of N.E. and 8.W. across
the Chunckygal mountains, where it again enters the Blue
Ridge, and probably continues through several of the upper
counties of Georgia, as Union, Habersham, Lumpkin and Hall.
Thus far, the corundum is known to occur only in a single forma-
tion, which may be designated as chrysolitic rock; though
from its color and some other peculiarities, it has often been
confounded with serpentine. Strictly speaking, as will more
fully appear farther on, it is not the true chrysolite, though
containing this species to some extent, in an intermingled or dis-
seminated condition.
ning out of the dises.
The principal exposure of the corundum has been effected at
what is known as the Culsagee mine, situated in the township
of Elegée (sometimes written Elijay) situate 8 miles S.E. from
C. U. Shepard—Oorundum of N. Carolina and Georgia. 111
exhibit
the following order of formations, commencing on the N.W.
gated without order, much as mica is in large-grained granites; -
but what is bere chiefly remarkable is, the entire absence of
quartz. Narrow veins, containing besides the chlorite and
corundum, a dark blackish green spinel (mostly massive), more
or less mingled with black tourmaline, traverse layers 4 and 5,
Chester (Mass.) emery mine. I have not been informed as to
the underlying rock of the above mentioned strata, but sup-
As to their linear prolongation, nothing is yet established ; but
18 quite probable that it is not very considerable in it sot
ton to the thickness of the beds; and it is most likely t
ted on the road from Walhalla, S. Car., to Franklin, and 10
or 15 miles to the S.E. of that above described. At the Culla-
Kenee (sometimes written Cullakenih) mine, on Buck creek, in
112 CU. Shepard—Corundum of N. Carolina and Georgia.
ertheless attended by quite a different series of minerals. The
outcrop extends over three hundred acres. Arfvedsonite, zoi-
site, albite and margarite are here found as its most frequent
attendants. The corundum is either white or gray like com-
mon feldspar, or else a delicate and often deep ruby-red color.
No tourmaline or spinel have thus far been noticed, though
oceasional detached specimens of picrolite in long and rather
does it emit, on being moistened, the peculiar odor of serpen-
tine. Where a partial decomposition has taken place, we only
see a thin crust or coating of a ferrugingus powder on the sur-
face. Nothing soft or taley appears, or any change indicating
a metamorphosis to serpentine. Though usually quite homo-
characters: Color yellowish olive-green ; structure fine granu-
ar to compact; luster glimmering, vitreous. H.=5%5 to 6°.
Gr.=3-04 to 3°06. When heated to redness in powder, it turns
pale cinnamon-red. Infusible. Easily AS by hydrochlo-
ric acid, with which it forms a stiff semi-transparent jelly.
Composition :
99°80
with traces of the oxides of chrome and nickel. The forego-
ing characters obviously place this abundant mineral under the
species villarsi =
The mineral next in importance is the green chloritic one
already mentioned as the immediate gangue of the corundum.
C. U. Shepard—Corundum of N. Carolina and Georgia, 118
It is that variety of chlorite properly called ripidolite. Much
of it, even to a depth of 50 feet at the Culsagee mine, assumes
slightly coherent condition of the vermiculite where it happens
to prevail in the workings, renders the separation of the corun-
ral, b
fusibility before the blowpipe. Into this aggregate small scales
Cons from Henderson Co., N. G., as to have caused them at
first to be referred to that species. This coating has about the
hardness of steatite or agalmatolite, and probably also a com-
variety of corundum differs considerably from that of the region
8enerally. It is less perfectly crystallized, and has a delicate
Am. Jour. Sor,—Turep Serres, Vor. IV, No. 20.—Avausr, 1872. :
8
114 CU. Shepard—Corundum of N. Carolina and Georgia.
rose-red or pink as its prevailing color. The blue tints are
wanting, so far as the specimens thus far submitted show; but
a grayish-white, like that of common feldspar, is the most com-
mon shade. The most characteristic associated species would
appear to be arfvedsonite of a grayish, brownish black color,
often in crystals and coarse fibres interpenetrating the corun-
dum. It also occurs in short crystals and even granular, of a
rich grass-green color, coating or including small ae tep and
lamine of the ru y,——constituting a rock of much _ beauty.
iar gangue of the red mee
da shows a dectled ‘stratification like certain varieties of
gneiss, that also embraces granular epidote, such as occurs at
Grace mountain, in Warwic ass.
The foregoing include all the species I have thus far had sub-
mitted to my notice, as belonging to the corundum formations
dolomitic limestone, containing scales of hae was se ent,
only as having been found in the vicinity of the Cullakenee
locali
[To be concluded.]
J. Trowbridge on Ohm’s Law. 115
Art. XX.—Ohm’s Law considered from a geometrical point of
vew; by JOHN TRowBRIDGE, Assistant Professor of Physics,
Harvard College.
Oxn’s law is briefly expressed thus: the strength of a cur-
Tent passing in any conductor of a resistance R is equal to the
aa force producing the current divided by the resist-
ance or S=> Let us suppose that a certain quantity of elec-
1. tricity pees at the point O,
is transmitted by the conductor
. BOC to the surface BC. The
= c quantity passing through an
unit ay of the conductor will
vary inversely as the section bc,
and inversely as the distance of
. the section from
Hence we shall have for an
expression of this quantity g=
x 2 gq. (1). In which Q repre
0
sents the entire quantity passing through any section S$; and
«18 the distance of the section from O. If we suppose that
the conductor B OC is formed by the revolution of any curve,
Whose equation is y= F (a), about the axis of X, equation (1).
becomes g= — 3; By substituting for y its value from the
*quation of the curve which generates the conductor, we shall
obtain equations which represent, when constructed as curves,
the variations in the quantity of electricity passing through a
Unit section of the conductor.
When the generating curve is y? = e the equation becomes
= —= constant; a straight line parallel to the axis of X. If
the curve is an equilateral hyperbola, whose equation is =~
we shall have g=
= ma where m is any constant. This
aC2e
° id
1s the equation of a straight line passing through the origin.
en the equation of the generating curve is y=’ the con-
ductor BOQ becomes a cylinder ; and g= © where Cis any con-
Stant. This is the equation of an equilateral hyperbola, and is iden-
116 J. Trowbridge on Ohm's law.
tical with the equation S= ee which is our original expression
for Ohm’s law. 2.
If we construct the various
curves represented by the \ \
equation S= R taking X as
the axis of resistance, E be-
ing constant for each curve,
we shall have a series of hy-
perbolas.
The series of curves repre-
sented in fig. 2 may be called
isoelectric curves, and present
some remarkable analogies to
the isothermal curves of ther-
mo-dynamics.
Let m=F (Sk) be the equation of the curve ab. The curve
ab will represent the relation between the increase in resist-
ance and the decrease inten- y 3.
sion. The curve a’b’ will
represent this relation for
m+dm. The twocurves a
and a’b’ differ from each oth-
er by a constant; the same
is true of the curves a’ a and
b’b, which are similar to the
adiabatic curves of thermo-
dynamics. Perhaps the sub-
ject is best exemplified by
an application to the electro- ~2
magnetic engine.
“The performance of external work by an electro circuit pro-
duces a counteractive force whose magnitude is equal to the
external work performed in an unit of time divided by the
strength of the current. ;
“ Let W be the external work performed in any unit of time
by the engine. This gives rise to a counteractive force which
causes the current to be of less strength than that which the
battery produces when idle. Let 7 be the strength of the cur-
rent in the idle circuit, and 7’ the strength when the work VW
is performed per unit of time; then the counteractive force 18
—, and the strength of the current 7’ is the same as if the
electromotive force instead of being E were H— Sate |
<——R—
O. Harger—New North American Myriopods. 117
W.J. M. Rankine on the General Law of the Transformation of
Energy, Phil. Mag., 1858.
In fi if we suppose that the electro-magnetic engine
does work, the strength of the current will fall in passing from
the resistance O C to O D, by reason of the counteractive force,
to the lower isoelectric curve ab; and a’abb' a’ will represent
the cycle of operations gone through by the performance of
work and a return to the condition of an idle battery.
In fig. 2 a= ees In thermo-dynamics a represents the
elasticity of a gas whose volume is represented by the line R.
n electro-dynamies a may be taken to represent the capacity
of a circuit, of given resistance, for work.
ne area of the figure ab’ a’ represents the work accom-
plished in going through the cycle of operations abb’a'a. As
in thermo-dynamies we shall have Q’—Q= A F, where F repre-
Sents the area abb’a’ and Q and Q’ the distribution of tensions.
When the area F becomes infinitely small we have d(Q= AdF,
and by a discussion of this area in reference to a change from
m to dm it is found that —< constant.
_ tn an electric circuit if T—2 represents the difference of poten- -
th ~ any two points, then we have Heat = Q’ (T'—?) or
a y
bg Q’=a constant for any one epoch, and m may be taken
‘0 represent T—¢ The remarkable fact that the efficiency of
e
.
both the thermo-dynamic and electro-dynamic engine is ex-
Pressed by the same function ot has already been noticed by
Mr. J. P. J oule, Manchester Transactions, vol. x.
en
Arr, XXL Brief Contributions to Zoilo the Mi
Mahed gy, from the Museum of
Fale College, No. XXIU.—Descriptions of New North Amer-
can Myriopods ; by O. HarGeEr.
ai Museum has lately received a number of interesting
b Ynopods from various parts of the country, collected in part
4 the writer while traveling across the continent as a member
e f. Marsh’s Geological Expedition to the Rocky Mountains
mn ific Coast. i t
weg by entomologists, a large proportion of these species are
and’ and in the following article a few of the most interesting
“~~ Characteristic forms are described.
118 O. Harger—New North American Myriopods.
Lathobius pinetorum, sp. nov.
Ferruginous, head and sometimes a few of the anterior seg-
ments of deeper color. Cephalic segment polished, its posterior
margin elevated. Ocelli on each side ten to fourteen. An-
river, Oregon, in October,
Geophilus gracilis, sp. nov.
Trichopetalum,* gen. nov.
Sterna not closely united with scuta; third and fifth joints of
antenne elongated; scuta furnished with bristles; no lateral
pores ; eyes present. i
This genus belongs to the family Lysiopetalide, and is closely
related to Pseudotremia of Cope (Proce. Am. Phil. Soc., vol. X1,
p- 179, 1869). It differs from that genus in having no pores,
instead of having the “annuli with two pores on each side of
* From Opié, a bristle, and zéraAov, a leaf or plate.
O. Harger—New North American Myriopods. 119
Naturalist, p. 748, Dec., 1871). It may be remarked that, in the
descriptions above referred to, Prof Cope, in stating the relative
lengths of the joints of the antennz in each of the two species,
omits all mention of the 6th joint; and, in the same manner,
Prof. Packard omits the second. Prof, Packard's figures also
represent only seven joints in the antennzy. Craspedosoma, as
defined and figured by Gervais (Apteéres, vol. iv, p. 119,
5; fig. 5), has the sterna and scuta consolidated into a complete
ning as in Polydesmus and ulus, and therefore differs from this
genus, as shown in plate 11, fig. 4, by a character considered of
family importance.*
Trichopetalum lunatum, sp. nov. PI. II, figs. 14.
Dirty white, banded transversely and mottled with light
brown anteriorly. Segments 28; males with 45, females with
46 pairs of legs. Head large, dilated laterally, covered with
short, erect, bristly hairs. Kyes (fig. 2) of 10 ocelli, in a lunate
Oup, Convex toward the bases of the antenna. Antenne
fig. 2) pilose, seven-jointed ; the joints measure, the first ‘(07™",
second “10™™, third -23™", fourth *11™, fifth 22™, sixth oom,
seventh ‘07™, First scutum semicircular, with the posterior
margin slightly concave. Near the outer angles of this seutum
are two small tubercles on each side, each bearing a stout
bristle, and higher up a third tubercle on each side bears also a
bristle. The remaining scuta (fig. 4) throughout are furnished
with three bristles on each side, springing from tubercles, the
two lower being approximate and situated on the upper surface
of the short lateral processes, and the third higher up on the
Scutum. On a few of the posterior segments these bristles are in
a transverse row, and on the last scutum, which is broad and
truncate, the two inner ones are thickened at their bases.
here is an impressed dorsal line. Legs slender, white, hairy,
with the penultimate joint lengthened. The under side of the
Seventh segment of the male fig. 8) is furnished anteriorly
Segment. In crawling these organs have a motion similar to
that of the
1 his species is not uncommon under or among decaying
faves in moist woods about New Haven.
* Since the above was in Prof. Cope, i article on the Wyandotte Cave
. Cope, in an yandott
and its Fauna (Am. ae Lng July, 1872, p. 414), has referred Sptrostrep
( eudotremia) ; Packard to anew genus Scoterpes, which he characterizes as
ek of eyes and lateral pores. Agreeing with Dr. Packard, he also doubts
Validity of his own’ genus tremia, and refers P. cav r
trephon, The lateral bear P. Vudiit are thus left somewhat doubtful, and with-
Out actual examination it is impossible to decide whether or not it is congeneric
With the species of Trichopetalum.
120 O. Harger—New North American Myriopods.
Trichopetalum glomeratum, sp. nov.
general color is somewhat darker. The eyes 11, fig. 5) of
19 ocelli in a subtriangular patch. There are 31 segments,
‘12™". Length of animal, 10™™.
A single specimen of this species was collected by the writer
in the valley of the John Day river, Oregon, in October, 1871.
Trichopetalum vuloides, sp. nov.
respectively, first 10™™, second 12™™, third -21™™, fourth -12™,
fifth 22™™, sixth -08™™, seventh °05™". First scutum nearl
semi-circular, but with the lateral angles acute, furnished wit
a transverse row of six short bristles, as are the other scuta;
these bristles are much stronger on the posterior segments, and
on the anal segment two of them are thickened at their bases.
Under a high power, the scuta are seen to be minutely wrinkled
transversely across the back, and longitudinally along the sides.
Legs hairy. Length 8™™.
This species was collected under stones at Simmons’ Harbor,
on the north shore of Lake Superior, by Sidney 1. Smith,
Naturalist to the U. S. Lake Survey.
Lulus furcifer, sp. nov.
Dark chestnut brown, beautifully ornamented with a black
dorsal line, a lateral row of black spots and transverse bright
ellow bands, which are very narrow and interrupted across the
Ses Feet and under part of body much lighter; segments
about 55. Eyes triangular, connected by an impresged line
along the upper margin of a dark band, which is encroached
upon. below by yellowish spots. Antenne filiform, pilose and
nearly black at tip, last jot very short; scuta with impressed
lines on the sides, and under a lens the surface of the back 1s
seen to be covered with minute oblong pits; anal scutum not
mucronate. Male organs (pl. u, fig. 7) of three pieces on eac
side directed backward, the outer (fig. 7, a) cylindrical and dis-
tally hairy on the inner side; within this is a much larger piece
(fig. 7, 5) in the form of an elongated narrow plate bent aroun
a robust spine (fig. 7, c), which is the inner and at its base the
0. Harger—New North American Myriopods. 121
Polydesmus armatus, sp. Nov.
Color various shades of chestnut brown or sometimes oliva-
ceous, with the lateral laminz and tip of anal seutum yellow ;
a few of the posterior scuta are sometimes lighter colored than
the others. he inferior border of the face, and the basal
_ Joints of the antennz are yellow; distally the antenne are much
ot
o£
bar
(a
PS]
v2]
Dd
=
B
por
OQ
o)
p
a
TM
et
o)
nr)
a
4
fo}
"Ss
ee
=)
a
=
a,
pas]
—
SS
©
ot
pw
©
=]
22)
ce
na
(as)
—
5
dg
oO
lee
PY)
iS
Qu
inner (is. 8, a) is cylindrical for the first third of its course, and
;
lamelliform, and sends inward and upward a much excavated
“aig (fig. 8, c), distally a smaller and less excavated one
hack 8, @), and is at this point contracted, but expands so as to
co in a much bent plate. The other portion (fig. 8, 0)
i ttl ong curved spine on a bristly cylindrical base, arising a
title behind and outside of the former, and curving spirally
around it, so that its attenuated tip is received in the excavated
8 small stout hooked spine (fig. 8, e) is nearly con-
aled 6 the bristles that spring from the base of the larger
ength 28™™,
Ge 18 Species resembles P. Haydenianus Wood, but may be
, ate distinguished by the much produced anal scutum, and
Oo. € male organs. It was collected in the John Day valley,
regon, by Prof. G. H. Collier and the writer, in October, 1871.
ae College, New Haven, Conn., June 27, 1872.
EXPLANATION OF Puate IL.
Figure s Trichopetalum lunatum, female, magnified 15 diameters.
- Antenna and right eye of the same, magnified 40 diameters.
3. Inferior view of seventh segment of male of the same, magnified 40
_Glameters,
4 Diagram of transverse section of segment of the same, magnified 30
meters. ‘
“i dia e
. Trichopetalum glomeratum. Antenna and right eye, magnified 265
“# 6 diameters. ‘
Trichope Antenna, magnified 25
orked :
the bent plate, the corresponding process on the right side is figur
u“ In position. :
. Polydesmus armatus. Male appendages of left side magnified 20
diameters, seen from below; a, larger process; 6, spine-like process ;
¢ and d, processes from the upper surface of a; ¢, curved basal spine,
J
122 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
Art. XXI1.— Preliminary Description of New Tertiary
Mammals; by O. C. Marsa. Part L
THE explorations of the Yale College party in the Rocky
Mountain region, during the past season, brought to light, m
addition to the extinct Birds and Reptiles already described by
the writer, many interesting species of new fossil Mammals,
and in the present communication a number of these from
Wyoming Territory are briefly characterized. Others will be
noticed in the succeeding numbers of this Journal, and it is
intended, at an early day, to give a full description with illus-
trations of all the new fossil vertebrates discovered by the two
Yale expeditions of 1870 and 1871.
Paleosyops laticeps, sp. nov.
determine with certainty its exact specific relations.
One of the treasures obtained by the Yale expedition of 1870,
which first explored the Green River Tertiary basin, was the
nearly complete skeleton of a species of Paleosyops, somewhat
smaller than the one described by Dr. Leidy. The animal was
adult, with the dental series in full perfection, although the
epiphyses were not completely codssified with the vertebre.
The teeth in this specimen have apparently the same general
structure as those in the type of P. paludosus, but differ in beg
nearly smooth; and this is not the result of age, as this individ-
ual was younger than the original of the larger species. €
ap ea moreover, given for the molar described* (‘22
ines fore-and-aft and 18 transversely”), would not apply to any
of the series in the present specimen. The last upper molar of
the latter has two well developed internal cones.
The cranium in Paleosyops laticeps is broad, and the zygomatic
arches much expanded. The squamosal portion is especially
massive. The nasals are narrow and elongated, and more like
the corresponding bones in Ayrax than those in the larger
pachyderms, They are prominently convex transversely, an¢
strongly arched longitudinally. The inner edges are thickened
* Proceedings Philadelphia Academy, 1870, p. 113. ‘
O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 128
below at the suture, indicating a strong cartilaginous nasal
septum. The anterior extremities are truncated, with the ex-
ternal angles rounded. The upper teeth form a complete series.
The canine is large, and broadly oval at its base. The outer
incisor is the largest, and at its posterior edge the premaxillary
18 subtriangular in transverse section. The sagittal and occi-
pital crests are strongly developed, and the coronoid process of
the lower jaw is short and recurved. The remaining portion of
the skeleton, which will be described in detail in the full deserip-
tion, shows conclusively that Paleosyops belongs to the Perisso-
dactyls, and not to the Artiodactyl group of mammalia, as sup-
posed by Dr. Leidy.
Measurements.
Length of entire upper molar series, 166
Antero-posterior extent of three true upper molars, - --- - - 94°
Antero-posterior diameter of last upper molar,.. _....--- 36°
Transverse di We ay ok ee a ts 40°
Antero-posterior diameter of upper canine at base,---.-- 29°
; ransverse iameter, RSE ese sen Sele ek a aa a :
“pace occupied by three right upper incisors, ..-.------- 34°
Vertical extent of zygomatic process of squamosal,__.... 51°
Transverse diameter of both nasals near anterior margin,. 42°
Width between bases of tipper chnities son ost fool ct. 49°
idth between bases of fourth upper premolars, - --- ---- 40°
This unique specimen was discovered in September, 1870,
by Mr. A. H. Ewing of the Yale exploring party. The locality
was near Marsh’s Fork, about fifteen miles from Fort Bridger,
Wyoming. The geological horizon was Eocene, or lower Mio-
cene. Other specimens of the same species have since been
found in the same region by members of both the expeditions.
Telmatherium validus, gen. et sp. nov.
A
cated by the ‘greater portion of a skull with teeth, and portions
of several other skeletons, obtained by the Yale party last year
arsh,* is
* This Journal, vol. ii, July, 1871, p. 35. Additional remains of this animal,
~ ined during our explotsnoks inst “jeer, show clearly that it belongs to the
a boscidea, as at first suspected. The species may therefore called Mastadon
PO
124 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
developed. The last upper molar has but a single internal
these teeth have a strong inner basal ridge. The roof of the
mouth is deeply excavated between the premolars. The nasals
are decurved laterally, and much compressed.
Measurements.
Extent of upper molar series, - 734° SS
mettons Of upper true. molara.. 34 es oe 130°
Antero-posterior diameter of last upper molar, = ee
Antero-posterior diameter of last upper premolar, -- ----- 28°
rankeorme Grainieter a 33°
Space occupied by three right incisors, 75
Antero-posterior diameter of upper canine at base, ---- -- 2
Sraneearae Gisitieter oo ee
Vertical diameter of zygomatic process of squamosal,.... 34
important parts well preserved. These remains show conclu-
sively that there are two genera represented among them. One
of these is doubtless Paleosyops, but the type of that genus 18
too imperfectly known to determine its more important charac-
ters. These two genera agree apparently in the structure of the
anterior portion of the skull, but differ somewhat in their den-
titi n some specimens, which agree best with Dr. Leidy’s
original description of Paleosyops paludosus, the last uppeT
molar has two inner cones, and to this group the name Palo-
syops may in future be restricted. The other specimens have
but a single internal cone on the last upper molar, and for the
genus thus represented the name Limnohyus is proposed. ‘These
genera may be distinguished from Telmatherium by the pre-
maxillaries, which are short, stout and depressed, with a small
median suture. Other distinctive characters of the three genera
will be given in the full description.
The present species may be distinguished from those above
described, especially by the strong basal ridge of the molars.
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 125
On the last lower molar it extends entirely around the posterior
obe. The first of the upper true molars has the two inner
cones nearly of the same size. The small intermediate median
tubercles are well developed on the upper molars, and all the
teeth are strongly rugose, even in fully adult animals. The
nasal bones contract anteriorly and are rounded in front. The
ic
unite by a very short median suture, similar to that in Paleo-
Measurements.
Antero-posterior extent of last three upper molars, La
Antero-posterior diameter of last upper molar, 41°
Transverse diameter, ee ar en ae a ee 43°5
Antero-posterior diameter of last upper premolar, - ------ 20°
peveversé diameter, .__..._..._..... i teases 26°5
Antero- osterior diameter of last lower molar,
Vertica diameter of zygomatic process of squamosal,.... 34°
The specimen on which the above description is chiefly
based was discovered, in September last, by Mr. F. Mead, Jr.,
hear Henry’s Fork, Wyoming. Other specimens of the same
nr, Mr. G. M.
8eological formation was lower Miocene, or Hocene.
Hyrachyus princeps, sp. NOV.
This well-marked species includes the largest of the Tapiridee
yet found in this country. The remains representing it indi-
cate an animal nearly three times the bulk of Lophiodon Baird-
us Marsh, and probably twice that of the individual named
yrachyus eximius by Dr. Leidy. The specimens on which the
Species is based consist of a nearly complete series of upper teeth,
and several lower molars, with the more important parts of the
skeleton, all ertaining to one animal, and remarkably well
Preserved. The last two upper molars are unusually lar
ede to the rest of the series, and have as antero-external
quite separate, and with its apex incurv
Measurements.
Ettent of entire upper molar series, 194°. mm
<tent of upper true molar series, . - -- - ------- -------- 76°
Tra ro-posterior diameter of last upper molar, - 21°2
emee Cintneke 2 ee st a eae
eet, = : oF:
ro-posterior diameter of penultimate lower molar, - - 28°75
Transverse diameter, ~ 17
126 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
es uae here described were found by the writer, last
; r Henry’s Fork, Wyoming, in the same Tertia ary
daponite thas “yinlde the specimens already noticed.
Homacodon vagans, gen. et sp. nov.
A new and very small suilline pachyderm is well represented
by the greater part of the skull and skeleton, in excellent pres-
ervation. The animal was apparently “ss to Hyopsodus, and
was somewhat larger than H. paulus. From that species, it me
readily be distinguished by the lower rae molars, which
the constituent cones isolated, not alternate, and of nearly oqidl
The inner anterior cone is, however, somewhat the largest,
suilline type.
Measurements.
_ Antero-posterior extent of the three lower true molars,..-17°5 "™
a. a a of last lower molar, ..-.--.----- 73
Tran e diam in from oo ae eee 4°
Aator ero- sean pee of three upper molars 23s
= hea Be diameter ia ~~ upper molar,.._.------ 5°5
‘Transverse diameter in front, 22. 2 206 5.0 oc 674
mele of sarepalie: ENE hey ie Mees eyes
This Man ee perfect specimen was discovered, in September
last, by Mr. G. G. Lobdell, Jr., of the Yale pact near Henry's
Fork, Wyoming, in the Mauvaises terres rtiary deposits of
that region
Naoikeraglandelae verus, gen. et sp. NOV.
e P
are compressed an and obtuse, as in the Canide. "The firs ome
premolar is large, and near ‘the canine. There are no true sec-
torial teeth. The crowns of the first and second upper molars
mere
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 127
Measurements.
Extent of last three upper molars, - - - -- ee ices a
An ror ee of first upper true molar, --.-- 9°6
Transverse diam wo Uke eee ee
Aoteroposteron diameter of last upper molar, is
Trans nsverse diameter de nthwind awk LAGE KE ie tan ees 12°5
The specimens on which this species is established were dis-
covered at Grizzly Buttes, near Fort Bridger, in September
last, by Mr. J. F. Quigley and the writer.
Viverravus gracilis, gen. et sp. nov.
A much smaller carnivor, about the size of the common
Measurements.
Exten t of pre-molar and molar series of lower jaw,-------: | roped
ixtent of last three lower tee th, STEN, |
a To-posterior diameter of last lower molar, . --- ------ 45
*reatest transverse dia wipteth is jk ee Tee 25
Autero-posterior — of penultimate lower tooth,... 5°2
Teatest transverse diam: sh as 3:4
Antero-posterior rar of upper sectorial molar, - --- -- 7
2 The pe specimen of this species was discovered at Grizzly
icc. ‘yoming; last autumn, by GG: Lobdell, Jr, of the
Nyctitherium velox, gen. et sp. nov.
One of the most reiea y discoveries of the last Yale
SoS in the Tertiary of yoming, was the remains of a
f bat, which is of jal i Sree as no fossil
esimen The Cheiroptera has hitherto d
htry
the teeth
ote convex lotisitudinadis= .
128 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammais.
Measurements.
Antero-posterior extent of last three molars,_..---- .--- 52.598
Antero-posterior Sane of last lower molar, 5 sotahie sh Sik 1°75
‘rameverse GmMeter, so 58 oso on acd an 4 Sel sues i:
Antero-posterior pacliee of penultimate lower molar,.. 1°85
LTBDAV OLAS SUMINEIOR, nc wn on hs nk a wh a slbid aaa oth a
Depth of jaw below last DROIBT sac). ia odoawur. Lagos 2
The remains on which this species is based were found by
the writer, in September last, near ong Fork, Wyoming.
ane formation is Hocene, or lower Mioce
Nyetitherium priscus, sp. nov.
A somewhat larger species, apparently of the same genus,
is indicated by part of a lower jaw, with the penultimate molar
perfect. The jaw is less compressed, and the tooth proportion-
ally se od than in the above species. There is no external
basal ridge
Measurements.
Antero-posterior extent of last three lower molars, -- ---- 55 Pe
t cayahed alge a Cisasten of penultimate lower pon Sieg 2°
Transverse diameter,..-..--.----.--- 15
Depth of eee tone last molar, - - - - - 2.5
This interesting specimen was found by Mr. G. G. Lobdell,
Jr., last autumn, at the same locality as the preceding species.
Talpavus nitidus, gen. et sp. nov.
small insectivor, apparently allied to the moles, 1s
well regheeanitad by several fragments of lower jaws with teeth,
ats pais by some isolated upper molars. T'wo character-
specimens of these remains were found together, and
deciles! alan ied to the same animal, which was about the
size of a mouse. One of these is part of a lower j asst containing
the first and second true molars; the other is an anterior
portion with only the last premolar in spaibiens The lower
molars resemble assesses # those of Zalpa, but on the inner
side are more like those of Scalops: they have no external
basal ridge. The lower ‘awe are more Bete Ne and compr
than those in most recent insectivors. The last premolar is
compressed and pointed.
Measurements. .
Antero-posterior extent of first two lower molars, --- - - -- Messe
Antero-posterior diameter of Reneb nate lower molar,_. 1°5
Depth of jaw below penultimate molar, ----..--.-~---- 2°
Depth of jaw below last lower eine 2°
The type specimen of this species was found by the writer,
in ‘Sopanber ast near Henry’s aos Wyoming. o
‘ale College, New Haven, July 1 ss
Chemistry and Physies, 129
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCER.
I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics.
+ An aaperisnent in reference to the question as to Va apor-
a re T. Prat Mier a resea cai of J niet ap pe it is
contact with this surface, the air in it, in virtue of the pressure of
the envelope, ae penetra penetrate into the interior of the
liquid, and will rise in it in virtue of the smaller specific gravity.
This I have dae vies by means of an experiment. I took a small
glass tube of about 4 millims, diameter i in the clear, drew it out at
di ,
the wider end by a cork coated with grease. By touching the
drawn-out end with a piece of filtering paper, wily was soaked
with distilled water, I succeeded in ee i into the narrow aper-
ture a column of this liquid not more than a cities } in length,
By eerily teprooting the cork, a hollow bubble is seen to form
€ drawn-out aperture, whic hm may have a diameter of less
ae a millimeter, and usually lasts seven or ight seconds. In
this nna the wider part of the tube m t be covered with
quired the power of procuring very small hollow yates oe AEA
. . e
ub 8 0
Such a small diameter the suspension is very easy. It is only
necessary, after filling the tube with water and closing the mouth
With a piece of aper, to invert it and then draw the paper aside
ontained in it —— and ascends in the liquid. The
periment repeated several times, always gave the same result.
now assume ‘that at a certain distance below the surface
of the Suspended water there is a current of visible aqueous vapor;
if this Vapor consists of vesicles, each of them, on coming into con-
tact with the surface, will introduce a mic roscopi¢ air-bubble into
the water, which will immediately ascend in it; and the whole of
*“Mém. sur un cas iat ed de ref des liquides,” Mém. de l’Académie
and xx
a de = tre vol. xxvi, 185
UR. Sc1.—Turrp eam Vou. IV, No. 20.—Avaeust, 1872.
9
130 Scientific Intelligence.
these vesicles will form a cloud in the water of the tube, which
slowly rises and destroys the transparency.
1. Duprez was good enough to make the experiment at my re-
quest. The water was suspended in a glass tube of 13 millims. in-
ternal diameter. A small metal vensel with an aperture of several
was observed in the water of the tube. The vapor condensed on
the outside of the tube, and from time to time was wiped away ;
but the water inside retained all its transparency.
After this it seems difficult to retain any doubt as to the non-
existence of the vesicular state. It seems to me, in fact, that only
“as the first of Pet assumptions must be rejected; for the
r had previously been eke with air so long as to be com-
sletet saturated, and, secondly, while it was exposed to the
~— of va a it must have lost whatever solvent power it pos-
sed; and, ver, sometimes even comparatively large air-
hokey eats on 5 the upper part of the inside of the tube, where
the hotter part of the water ascends.
e second supposition, though not quite inadmissible, is at any
rate not very probable. We have seen that our small nt com
make must be so thick that they are colorless ; otherwise a
cloud irradiated by the sun could have no bright luster ; fos
over, from the long duration of large clouds, they must be very
permanent,
As regards = Serene is it probable that all vesicles
eould roll alon su without touching? Moreover pe
selves in contact with the fluid surface : but nothing in the result
was different ; no cloud disturbed the transparency of the water.
Chemistry and Physics. 131
I consider the above experiment, though not decisive, yet a
very powerful argument against the hypothesis of the vesicular
ion.
y I here be permitted to recall another experiment, which I
have described in the eighth series of my investigation Sur les fig-
ures dequilibre Pune masse liquide sans pésunteur. One of the
the part of the fluid envelope to a considerable pressure, the effect
of which would be that this air would gradually dissolve in the
envelope, and would traverse it, by which the vesic e would soon
of 1 part of Marseilles soap in 40 of water, and this is allowed to
hg in an atmosphere laden with aqueous vapor, it sometimes
are "nh more than twenty-four hours and becomes quite black.
kabl 8 se
calotte gradually decreases mae ultimately disappears,—from
Which it follows that the enclosed air has gradually traversed the
amina, This lamina is indeed far thinner than a vesicle would
be; Dut, on the other hand, theory shows, from the difference of
the liquids and the diameter, that in the interior of a vesicle the
t
ned a new substance isomeric with ethylic nitrite. When
ethylic iodide is poured upon argentic nitrite, violent ebullition
"sues, To complete the reaction, the mixture may be heated for
ondenser. On distillation, a mixture
lalca. 3 y the name of nitro-ethan. It is a perfectl colorless,
car liquid, of a peculiar agreeable, etherial odor. Its density at
w
of ethylic nitrite, the boiling point of which is 96° C. lower. When
'tro-ethan is heated with iron filings and acetic acid, a violent
““ton ensues, which must be moderated by plunging the flask
su
at an corresponds to the aromatic nitro-compounds. e
be ton between th
Y the formulas:
€,H,—6--N@. O.N- 6.8:
Ethylic nitrite (B. p. 16°C,). _ Nitro-ethan (B. p. 111°-113°C.).
132 Scientific Intelligence.
A solution of caustic potash dissolves nitro-ethan, which Rte:
to possess weak acid properties. Sodium atta cks it with evolu-
tion of gas and formats on of a white powder, which exphodile on
eating. The authors promise a further investigation of this very
interesting — —Berichte der Deutschen Chem. ae Jahr-
gang Vv, p. 3
Note. Me it not possible that in the \ es ondacwintly> stable
double salts of cobalt, iridium and rhodium, having respectively
the formulas, €o,(N G2) sos, fr4(NO2) 0K and Rh,(N®,),2
K,, the nitrous atom is (0,N—) and not (—~O—N®)? > w. G.]
3. e reduction of glutanic acid by iodhydrie acid.—The
seacectian of Ritthausen have rendered it probable that glutanic
Wes
by
pure glutamic acid, ©,H,N®,, was = converted into glutani¢
acid by the action of nitrous acid, e glutanic acid obtained in
this manner, €,H,O,, was then ped in a sealed tube with a
into desoxy-glutanic iar oe The new acid is ee basic,
orms large crystals which belong to the monoclinic bre: and
is easily soluble i in water. The formula of this acid is the same as
of them yield pyrotartaric acid b —— uction.— Journal fir prakt
Chemie, "Ne Velgd Band 5, p. 3 33 ot wa
an aldehyd-alcohol. rah has obtained a aes * poly-
mer of aldehyd, ane the formula €,H,©,, to which he gives
the name of aldol. is a perfectly colorless liquid, which after
cooling becomes thick like a pure solution of sugar. It is so viscid
at. 0° that the tube containing it may be inverted without any flow
of liquid. When gently heated, it becomes as fluid as water, but
it regains its viscid character only some hours after cooling. 1ts
density at 0° is 11208: it has a strong serene and bitter taste,
and mixes in all proportions with water and aleo When heated
to 135°, aldol is resolved mu crotonic shiclivd sid water:
€ HO, =O 8 ,O-+0H,.
Aldol reduces se nitrate aie cupropotassic sulphate. When
heated for some days with anhydrous acetic acid, aldol forms aD
acetate havi Sait the formula €,H,0(€,H,®,) ; ‘and a diacetate
having the formula €,H,(€, H,0 ©) 05 which may be regarded as
the diacetate of crotonic aldehyd. — Nitric acid oxidizes aldol with
es energy, forming severa Gritanil Y welll not yet descri
hosphoric chloride also acts energetically an aldol, fo sf
chloride which is Lae ierse ۩,H,Cl,. This is a thick, colorless
liquid almost impossible to purify. Wurtz pounidell aldol to have
a constitution represented by the formula:
€H,—€H(0H)-—€H,—€Ho.
Geology and Mineralogy. 133
By the prolonged action of chlorhydric acid upon aldehyd, Wurtz
obtained also the anhydride of aldol (€,H,9),0. The author
remarks that aldol in many respects resembles the sugars, glucose
being like aldol, at the same time an aldehyd and an alcohol.—
Comptes Rendus, Tome Ixxiv, p. 1361. Lona
II. Grotoay anp MINERALOGY.
1. Fossils probably of the Chazy era in the Eolian Limestone
of West Rutland ; by E. Burtrxes. (From a letter to J.
Dana, dated Montreal, May 23.)—I received last summer som
fossils from Rev. Wing, and made the following note upon
them before I sent them back. :
5th June, 1871, from the Rev. A. Wing, twenty specimens
with the following ticket:
“Encrinites and obscure fossils, supposed to be Trenton, col-
lected May, 1870, at the marble quarries, West Rutland, not one
d r
o
Most northern one worked on the southwest side of the valley,
Say one hundred and fifty rods southwest from Barns’ hotel, West
Rutland.”
_ If Hitchcock's Eolian is Stockbridge limestone, then the latter
Meludes the Chazy. The plate of the Cystidean, P. tenuiradiatus
all, is a never-failing guide to the Chazy ; at least it is so on the
aoe ms Lake Champlain. oe ate
ayden Kxplorin edition. the covery 0,
bee Pnnaticn in be tee of Idaho; by Prof. F. H,
Brapiey, Geologist of the Expedition. (From a letter to J. D.
Dana, dated Fort Hall, Idaho, July 7th, 1872.)—I write to
announce the discovery of the Quebee group. I first found it in
be conside i dsto: I trace
red as representing the Potsdam sandstone. I tr
sae d, nearly coniiiioasee to the angle of Port Neuf Cafion—
@ distance of over fifty miles. At this latter point the bed seems
Me thin somewhat, and is overlaid by 1,000 feet or more of quartz-
es
134 Scientific Intelligence.
a Neévé de Justedal et ses Glaciers ; par C. pr Srun, ad-
joint. . ‘Vint Pome Aine de I Université Royale de Chris-
tiania. 56 pp. 4to, with a chart, 9 photographs, and a lithographic
plate. Chitianis, 187 0.—We cite here a few facts from this i impor-
tant memoir. The great névé of Justedal covers a high plateau,
lying between Sogn on one side and the Nordfiord and Séndfiord
on the other, having a height of 1400 to 1650 meters above the
sea, but passing northeastward into a chain of mountains, the cul-
minati ing summits of which are the Lodalskaobe, 2076 meters in
hess, parent it descends the valley of Viksdalen into the Séndfiord.
The ‘length of the névé region is thus about 42 miles, and its sur-
face over nine hundred square miles.
fj aciers of the first class that descend from the snow-
plateau are those of—1, Vetelfiord ; 2, Boium; 3 and 4, Suphelle;
5, Langedal; 6, 7, Optag; 8, Austerdal ; 9, Tunsbergdal ; 10, 11,
12, Bergset; 13, Nigar; 14, Faobergstol ; 15, Lodal; 16, Stege-
“eh er Gredung Bad al; 19, Ne sda is 20 Aobrekke; 21,
Brigsdal ; 22, Melkevold 23, Fo nd, in the valley of Stardal ; 2
Lunde. ‘After numerous measurements of the rate of progress
the movement of the ice in the glaciers of Boium, of Tonehengal
and of Lodal, in the course of the month of August, the author
gives the following as the mean results.
In the case of the glacier of Boium, the rate per hour near its
extremity was 0°28 in. pao tt and English) ; ; 3,000 feet above
the extremity it was 0°66 i 8 yards from the oe convex
side, 0°87 in. at the middle, mite o- 81 about 100 m the
opposite or more convex side; while at points vag the less con-
vex side within 20 to 40 yards of the margin the rate was 0°16 im.
to 0°20 in. an hour.
For the glacier of Tunsbergdal, the rate per hour near the ex-
tremity was 0°23 in.; about 2,900 feet above it was 0°37 in. 135
yards from the concave side ; about the middle 0°41 in. to 0°51 in. ;
and toward the convex side 0°62 in. to 0°63 in.
For the glacier of Lodal, the rate per ar, about 490 yards
above the extremity, was at the middle 0-104 in. to 0-091; about
1,875 yards above the extremity 0°183 in., 0°218 in. and 0° 212 in;
about 2 500 yards from the extremity, just below where the two
_ tributary glaciers come in from the right and left, 0°047 in.
ear the margin; 100 yards from this margin, 0°140 in. ; ‘about th @
middle of the glacier 0°279 in. ‘297 in.
tat author states vee the inelnation of the surface beneath the
glacier where the measurements were made is about the same for
each, and that the aiferonce ve the rate - motion depended on
the pressure from the upper eng of = lacier. This pressure,
was, ‘‘iseetoak,; much the greatest for the glacier of Boium. The
o
8
Geology and Mineralogy. 135
conclusions are drawn that the movement diminishes in ratio
toward the sides, bottom, and extremity of the glaciers; and
when the course bends, so that one side is convex and the other
concave, the movement is most rapid on the convex side.
T are only a few of the results brought out in this Memoir.
Tt is illustrated by a map and diagrams, and also by a photo-
graphic plate made up of nine photographic views of the Norwe-
gian glaciers,
4,
a for
lower Switzerland to the J uras, and lodged boulders on these
mountains, and that Prof. Guyot followed the lines of these bould-
ers from the Juras across the plain to their sources in the Alps.
Messrs, Falson and Chantre have recently traced the path of this
glacier all the way from Lake Geneva, southwestward to Lyons,
passing by Seillon, Chatillon, Ars and Sattonay, and even ten miles
farther south, to Vienne in Dauphiny. In its course, after being
Jomed by the glacier o. the Arve (of which the Mer de Glace was
one of the sources), it encountered the local glaciers of some of the
valleys of Bugey; but it ended in surmounting the latter and
depositing its moraines ot crystalline rocks over their moraines of
eemetone rocks.— Bibl Univ., 1870, xxxviii, 118, and Bull. Soe.
col, :
showing that the denudation was not due to
the east-and-west course of the Magellan straits. e two heads
of the narrowest part of the straits are beautifully polished and
rounded. Similar glacial effects were observed in Borgia Bay ;
Sreater extension than now.
rot. Agassiz concluded from the character of the north and
South sides of the summits in Fuegia, and other facts, that the
tho’ement of the ice was to the north, and independent mainly of
© present slopes of the land.
The region ne which Prof. Agassiz states that he observed
Slacial phenomena in southern South America includes all of the
136 Scientific Intelligence.
continent south of 37° of S. latitude both on the Atlantic side
(Bay of St. Matthias, and the Pacific side. At Talcahuano large
erratic boulders and roches abe AO were observed at the mouth
Vin-
cente (between Concepcion Bay and ‘Gh Bay of Aranco) glacial
markings were found by. Mr. Pourtales, at the sea level—“ a mag-
nificent polished surface,” says Prof. Ag gassiz, “as well preserved
as an ave seen under glaciers of the present day, with —
marked furrows and scratches ;” and this is in latitude 3°°.
place is only a few feet above tide level, upon the slope of a hill
n which stand the ruins of a Spanish fort. The course of the
scratches is nearly east and west ; but some cross the main trend,
- and runsoutheast. The magnetic variation at pach emer is 18°3',
the true meridian being to the right of the magnet
6. Annual Report of Prof. D. oE Boyd, Savesntediais of the
Louisiana State University, for the year 1871, to the Governor of
the State of Louisiana. 233 pp. 8vo. New Orleans, 1872,.—This
Geological ‘Serooy of the State by | “ V. Horxiys, M.D., Prof.
Geol., Chem. and Min., in the Universi
In the Geological Report, Prof. tes ins gives many inp :
facts with regard to the ge opens deposits, and also a colo red
geological map of the State. The Post-tertiary is eg to con-
sist, following the order of age, of (1) the Drift, (2) the Port Hud-
son group (so named by Hilgard), (3) the Loess, (4) the Yellow
oam. ‘To the last three the term Bluff formation is here ap-
plied; and it is stated that “the delta formed by the se
from the end of the Drift period to the era of the Loess was
posed of its strata.”
The beds of the Port Hudson group are mostly hard sand-beds,
sandy-clay and were: they are more or less calcareous, and are
often characterized by calcareous concretions. e thickness at
the ee welle of rea is 160 to 282 feet. Pro Hhilg a
in the southern part, and fresh water shells in some aac The
of the po cent fg Lignite layers also oceur in it, and
Setacaeee sot ge mps.
The | sovats a fine silt, sos compacted. The water of
slight ‘ai is is whsor ed into its porous beds, while heavier flows
Vyclostoma, Achatina, and Suecinea, as long sinee observed near
N atohen “ar Lyell; and sometimes affords bones of the mastodon.
Geology and Mineralogy. 187
The yellow loam bed is for the most part between ten and twenty-
five feet in thickness. “It is remarkable for the uniformity with
which it appears at various levels, proving its deposition since the
occurrence of a large amount of denudation in the older Bluff
by a supposed barrier.
e drift contains pebbles, which are mainly of reddish and
yellowish chert. Among them there are numerous Silurian
rachiopods; they must have come from Tennessee and the
States farther north either side of the Mississippi river ; some of
em from points 400 miles or more distant. The thickness of the
drift in Louisiana is stated to average 200 feet. In the northwest-
‘ 2 rot.
nee “that the passage of this formation into the modified
he N
boulders of large size occurring at this elevation in Licking Co.,
Ohio; and on this point he adds; “ We are
. Ssissippi valley, and must grant that when the water floated an
ice raft either up or over a hill 1,159 feet above the present sea-
el there was a clear sweep for the polar current from the straits
of Belle Isle (Gulf of Newfoundland) to the Gulf of Mexico.”
18 iceberg theory appears to be here called in just where it
fannot serve. If the Gulf of Mexico had then opened up over the
Continent either to the Arctic or the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, with
the water 1,159 feet—or say 1,000 to 2,000 feet or more—deep at
the Gulf, the Gulf stream would be the current, if any, that would
“2ve occupied the great interior sea of the Mississippi valley ; and
this would have given icebergs southward-bound a hard up-stream
current to beat against. ere does not appear to be any good
foundation for the conclusion that the Labrador current would
138 Scientific Intelligence.
have had control of the waters. The latter flow would have
d 4 its position greatly the advantage of the former in the
contest for possession of the Mississippi region, and would at least
aa ‘nullified the Labrador flow if n nothing more. The iceberg
theory is therefore as wholly inapplicable to Louisiana as it is to
New England. Besides the above consideration, and also the ob-
jection to a continental submergence in the absence of the skeletons
of whales, shells, and other sea relics from the drift regions of the
ntinental inte rior, there is other evidence against the iceberg the-
e fact that the deposits of sand bear evidence, in many
= reas as Prof Hopkins says, that they were made by running water
in rapid flow. e oceanic currents are slow lazy currents, even the
best or largest - — 3 miles an hour is an unusual rate, and 5
miles an extrem cept in narrow channels. So slow a move-
ment is wholly inadequate to produce the kind of beds making up
muc e the drift; for the sand deposits often bear evidence of the
fling of the waves, or of the } iolent rush of a tidal current, as
ing Co. "Ohio, to ag sm resent place, and been — nent means
of transportation over the north, icebergs, or more common-
ld ard
perio od with extreme slowness, even ain e cahelionee of the
ceils epoch had taken n plac e. But sche or later the flood
from ane melting would have begun; ant: as Prof. Hilgard has
shown, it would have been a vast flood, coming as it must have
done sa ice that buried deeply the whole icatsh of the Missis-
sippi water-shed, and even from regions beyond it, since one oF
more of the Great Lakes then poured their waters southward—an :
area ey less than. twenty millions of square miles. An d, in
suc ood, masses or bergs of ice, freighted with wit would
ave oa e with the current southward ; while the waters in rapi
violent aoe would have transported the sands and even coarser
material, and made deposits of all the various kinds —
7. Investigations os Fossil Birds; by Mr. A. Mane Ep-
warps,—At the moment when my inv mergers upon fossil b ree
0.
which have lasted fully twelve years.
Geology and Mineralogy. 139
I believe I have demonstrated, by the examination of the bones
which have been found in the recent deposits in the Mascarene
for the most part, to extinct species,
eee for when Europeans visited them for the first time, they
id not find there any Mammalia, with the exception of some
Epyornis which Mr, A. Grandidier and I have been able to
recognize among the fossils collected in the swamps of the south-
West coast have enabled us to establish the rela ionship which
Connects these birds with the Dinornis, the Palapterpx, and
h
: ra
M superficial deposits, sometimes in caverns, fragments of bir Is
Which furnish us with valuable indications of the climatal condi-
tions of that epoch. Some of these species have now entirely dis-
4ppeared: others, in conside
toward the north—for instance, the grouse and the great
tion, W
;2nnot invoke the same explanation for birds which have never
been domesticated. Lastly, we also find in our caves a grea
humber of species identical with those which now inhabit temper-
-_ urope—among others, the cock, which was supposed to be a
hative of India, but which, on the contrary, must have been a con-
*mporary of the first ages of man. ‘ :
eliey especially the Middle Tertiary deposits which have fur-
mshed me with a rich harvest. us in the Department of the
Allier I have recognized the presence of about 70 species belong-
§ to very various groups, some of which no longer belong to our
140 Scientific Intelligence.
fauna. Parrots and trogons inhabited the woods; swallows built
in the fissures of the rocks nests in all pr obability like those now
found in certain _ ts of Asia and the Indian archipelago. A
secretary bird nearly allied to that of the Cape of Good Hope
sought in the plains the serpents and reptiles which at that time,
as now, must have furnished its nourishment. Large tre
cranes, flamingoes, the sone oh (birds of curious forms, part
both of the characters of the flamingoes and nite a Gralle),
and ibises frequented ‘the banks of the water-courses where the
midst of the lakes; and, lastly, sand-grouse and numerous
> seein noe birds assisted in giving to this ornithological popula-
tion a physiognomy with which it is impossible not to be struck,
and ick recalls to one’s mind the descriptions which Livingstone
has given us of certain lakes of southern Africa.
e list I have given of the birds whose existence I have ascer-
. in the part of the “spare lakes the alluvium of —_— hee
formed the deposits of St. Géraud le Puy, of Vaumas, &ec.,
which are only represented in my collection by a single bone
or meee a few bones. The species most frequently met with are
left
mete as now, birds had preferences for certain places, certain
-, from which they de — pie —- The little diver
h
the genera Totanus and Tringa, whilst Elorius and Himantopus
are represented by few indbvictiate I have found numerous bones
of the ibis, and in particular of the eaibogintaeete estas Hee 5 the
four other species of the latter —— re by no means so common.
. The cranes are rare; their bones are almost always broken and
often injured by the teeth of rodents, as if they had lain for a long
time on the bank before being carried to the bottom of the lake.
The rails, the gallinaceous birds, the pigeons, the sand-grouse, the
passerine birds, the raptores, and the parrots have left but few
traces of their existence. These bi rds, from their mode of life, did
not remain continually on the shores of the lakes or water-courses ;
their — might be eaten or destroyed at once, and it would
d a concurrence of exceptional circumstances for them to be
Geology and Mineralogy. 141
I met with a single bone of a parrot, sand-grouse, secretary bird,
or of several of the raptores; and some, of which I had collected
the remains a long time ago, have not appeared since.
All the bones of birds collected in the Miocene beds of Weis-
senau, in the basin of Mayence, that I have been able to examine,
kag a complete resemblance to those of the Department of the
er.
the Bourbonnais and the Auvergne: and although the greater part
of the species belong to families at present existing in our fauna,
hot one is known to be actually living, and several of them
Re characters sufficient to constitute new gener
re, :
€ marine faluns of the Loire have only furnished me with a
few species of birds. I have been able, however, to recognize a
cormorant almost as large as that which now lives on our shores,
142 Scientific Intelligence.
we have as yet discovered only very few traces of terrestrial
animals which lived during the deposition of these important
strata. Perhaps new zoological forms will be discovered there
filling up the immense gap which exists between the J urassi¢
8, Fossil ache ten From the Niobrara and Upper Missouri.—
Prof. Leidy has founded a species of lion, Felis augustus, on sev-
eral teeth and fragments of riots from the Loup Fork of the Nio-
brara, Nebraska, obtained by Dr. Hayden. The most character-
iscosaurus ; and “ viewing the specimen as probably represent
ing a genus different from those mentioned, he proposes for the
species the name Oligosimus grandevus.” Another specimen ob-
tained by Dr. Hayden in the “ Black Foot country” at the es =
the Missouri, “ looks as if it had formed part of the dermal a
of some huge saurian, or perhaps of an armadillo-like eh 9 :
ee this specimen heres is a distal phalanx, which may
belong to the same — named Tylosteus ornatus.— Proce.
Acad. Nat. Sci., April 2, 1872.
9. esa Mammals from. the Tertiary of Wyoming ; Prof.
Leidy. specimen here described is a fragment of an upper
jaw with er molar teeth, and another a lower jaw with one molar.
e upper molars have crowns composed of four lobes, the outer
of which are like those of Anchitherium. The three upper molars
occupied a space of eight lines. They are too large for the know?
species of Hyopsodus or Microsyops, and nearly accord with the
lower molars of Notharctus. The species is named Hipposyys
show that the Bridger Tertiary formation of was C0-
temporaneous with the Tertiary deposit of Meeitath Oo. N. I
Proc. Acad, Nat. ‘ad., Apr. 2, 1872,
10. Graptolites—Prof. Allman has a valuable. article on the
morphology and affinities of Graptolites in the May number of
the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, which concludes 48
ows:
is were alleged Polyzoal [or Bryozoan] affinities, however, have
some claim on our acceptance. Indeed, were it not for the dis-
arene a the probable graptolite gonosome (corbule ?), we should
have nearly as much to say for this view as for that which wo ould
refer them to the Hydroida, more especially as the So of
Rhabdopleura renders us acquainted with a polyzoon in whose t
* On this point, see Marsh, this Jourual III, iii, 56, 360.
Geology and Mineralogy. 143
is developed a chitinous rod in almost all respects like that of the
graptolites.*
On the whole, then, it would seem that the graptolites consti-
h if fiinity
Thave proposed to designate them.’
. Descriptions of New Species of Fossils, from the vicinity of
Louisville, Ky.; by James Hart and R. P. Wurrrtetp (con-
tinued). 12 pp. 8vo. Published June 12, in advance of the
Report on the State Museum.—The species described are Brachio-
, nort
and South, is unquestionably Cretaceous. It is covered with beds
gain, the branches of the large Madrepore of the wreck were
Widely spaced, those of M. cervicornis having intervals of from
Six to eighteen inches or more between the branches.
ct it is impossible to make any exact estimate of the
rate of growth of the reef; because a large part of the reef-grounds
Sen at is, of the region of soundings receiving the eoral débris—
i t
. ora .
<— of all Aiea. aie and channels among reefs, the bottoms of
ic , as
8reat extent so because too deep for living corals; and it is true
wee, compari vith that of a graptolite has al-
parison of the rod of Rhabdopleura with that of a graptolite
ready been made by Dr. Nicholson (‘Manual of Zoology”), though he adopts the
ao generally accepted view which finds hydrozoal rather than polyzoal affiniti
‘the graptolites.
144 Scientific Intelligence.
even of the coral plantations, these including many and. large
jarren areas, ‘These unproductive portions of Pecreree con-
this allowance, the estimate of one-fourth of an a a year would
become one-twelfth of an i
Again, shells add pee ee ably to the amount of calcareous
material, perhaps one-sixth as yee as the corals; but against this
we may ‘set off the porosity of the coral.
The rate of growth of the a clivosa, stated on page
125, would make the rate of increase in the reef very much less
r. pid. The specimen—grown within fourteen years—weighs 24
oz. avoirdupois, and has an average diameter of 7 inches. This
increase would become about 1-80th of an inch per yea
The specimen of Oculina diffusa, referred to on -_ 125,
weighs 44 ounces, which is five-sixths more than that of the
Meeandrina, while the average anaes of the clump is the same.
The average annual increase would consequently cover a circular
area of 7 inches diameter 1-18th of an inch deep. And m
calculation, because we have not the specimen for examination,
d it is not certain that the Sales stated by him was not
horizontal diameter.
These estimates from the Meandrina clivosa and Oculina
growth as those ip she outer margin of the reef. Again, we have
made no allowance for the carbonate of lime that is supplied by
the waters by way of cement, supposing that this must come
originally, for the most part, from the reef itself. Besides, we
have aeons supposed all the coral reef-rock to be solid, free from
open spaces ; and, further, it is not considered that much of it is
a coral pat soto in which the e fragments 8 their original
osi
Pon the other side, we have not allowed for loss of débris from
the reef grounds by transportation into the deep seas adjoining,
believing the amount to be very small.
Whatever the uncertainties, it is evident that a reef increases
its height or extent with extreme slowness. If the rate of upward
Geology and Mineralogy. 145
progress 1s even one-sixteenth of an inch a year, it would take for
an addition of a single foot to its height one hundred and ninety
years, and for five feet a thousand years.
It is here to be considered that the thickness of a growing reef
could not exceed twenty fathoms (except by the few feet added
een beach and wind-drift accumulations), even if existing for
oe of thousands of ears, unless there were at the same
Ime a slowl progressing subsidence; so that if we know the
possible rate of increase in a reef, we cannot infer from it the
ney ae for any particular reef; for it may have been very
. ; Slower than that. Without a subsidence in progress, the
eel would increase only its breadth.—Dana’s Corals and Coral
18. Revue de Géologie pour les années 1868 and 1869, par M.
tT. Vol. viii, 1872. Paris (Dunod,
in
dia, Coal, b : i
y Thomas Oldham; Geology of the Shillong Plateau
by H.R. Medlicott; Part 2, the papers on the Kurhurban and
mantrated by numerous plates; and Ser. vit, Kutch Fossils, some
lary Crabs, by F. Stoliczka, also illustrated in excellent style.
Birests , ALFRED C. SELwyn, F.G.S.,
ches Report of Progress for 1870-71, 352 pp., 8vo. 1872.—
th he Survey,
“ Progress of the Survey and on the Gold Fields of Quebec
New 8 é runswick; by Mr. Roxss on Northwestern
bar runswick; by Mr. Ricuarpson on the country north of
Co e St. John; by Mr. Venn and
Me’ putatio; by Mr. Broome on Phosphate of Lime and Mica; by
alah ELL on the region north of Lake Superior. The most
orate report is that of Messrs. Bailey and Matthew. Their
on ame, and of the progress of discovery with reference to it,
ae up, in succession, the Laurentian areas and rocks, t
z : itneg or those regarded as probably of this system, the Prim-
thes under the name of the St. John Group, the Upper Silurian,
Me evonian, the Lower Carboniferous, the Carboniferous or Coal
‘sures, and the Triassic or New Red Sandstone. eology
M. Jour. Sct.—Tarrp Series, Vor. IV, No. 20.—Aveust, 1872,
10
146 Scientific Intelligence.
of New Brunswick was well posted up by Dr. Dawson, in 1868,
in the second edition of his excellent oe Geology, and illus-
trated by a geological map. The authors give a more il
account of some parts os the nibleat together with the results of
beds by Mr. Matthew, was first proved to be Primordial “i Prof.
C. F, Hartt, his discoveries with regard to the fossils, added to
those previousl obtained, enabling him to announce this con-
elusion with full confidence, the species of Lingula, Para
?
yond doubt. The formation consists mainly of shales and is stated
to be a little over 2000 feet in thickness, It occurs in Southern
eet Geol olog
21. Stirlingite, Z.. erite.—Kenngott, in the February number
of the Jahrbuch fir Mineralogie, has applied to the chrysolite
containing zine, described by Repper in this Journal, II, 1, 35, the
name Stirlingite, and to - manganesian dolomite, of the same
author and page, the : is name
Reepperite by Prof. Bruah i in the supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy,
issued a month later arch s the silicate is more
deserving of a — name, it is to be regretted that Reepper’s
name cannot be it.
The Jahrbuch ‘fir Mineralogie, Geologie und Palzontologie, of
Leonhard and Geinitz (formerly Leonhard and Bronn), publish shed
at Stuttgart, is the only journal in which mineralogists will find
all the latest mineralogical news. It is an excellent journal also
in its other departments, geology and paleontology.
22. Oligoclase from Wilmington, Delaware—N. Teclu gives
for the <a of this oligoclase,
aa alumina 23°56, lime 2°84, sods 9°04. potash 1°1}==101-30.
The s described as remarkable for having ‘cleavage
pail to a prismatic fac
omorphite in Nevada. —Professor wha gan mentions
six inches to as many feet. A specimen had the e appearance of
French prepared chalk. It occurs in crore deposits, but the
locality the discoverer declined to disclose. Dr. Blake had found
it to be a form of borate of lime.—Proe. ‘Cal. Acad. Sei., iv, 195-
24. Zeunerite of A. Weisbach, an arsenate of uranium and cop-
per, related to uranite in luster, grass-green color, tetragonal
Zoology and Botany. 147
according to Win
As 15-1, § 55-6, Pe 5-2, Ou 8-7, Ca 1-2, H 14510073.
From the analysis is deduced the oxygen ratio for the
u, G, As, H, 3:18: 10: 24.
Jahrb. Min., Feb., 1872, 207.
25. a Transparent Garnet from Jordansmithl in Silesia; b
Mr. Wensxy of Breslau.—This garnet is colorless and has G.—=
3609. The form is the dodecahedron, but with a very obtuse
tetrahexahedron 2-84. It afforded Websky on analysis,
Si 37:88, 41 21-13, Fe 4°19, Mn 0-45, Ni 0-28, Mg 2:88, Ga 31-28, H 1-08=99.17;
Whence it is essentially an alumina-lime garnet.
26. On the composition of the vapors or gas escaping in
the Phlegrewan Fields and other places near Vesuvius ; by Mr.
Gorcrrx.—At the great Solfatara, the gas of the 20th of July
crystallization and easy basal cleavage. G. = 3-2. Composition
er,
0'7, nitrogen 4°35, On the 24th, 11S 5-0, CO? 80-0, O 2-7, N 123, the
temperature of the gas was 110° to 120°C. On the 25th the gas
afforded HS 10-0, CO® 73-3, O 8-0, N 13°72.
At the Grotto di Zolfo the gas from the entrance consisted of
HS 4°7, CO? 88-2, O 0-7, N with combined gas 6°4; and that from
the interior gave for the same ingredients the numbers 5:7, 87°8,
07, 5°8, The gas from the baths at Lake Agnano, taken on the
24th of July, afforded in two analyses, CO? 83-3, 86-9, O 4:1, 2°0,
N 12°6, 11-1, with a trace of HS in the second. In other portions
there was less of carbonic acid and more of atmospheric acid.
t Torre d
the recent eruption afforded HS 20-0, CO2 91°5, O 0-7, N with com-
bined gas 7:8. [These numbers do not foot up 100, and either that
for HS or that for CO must be 20 or less in error]. At Chiata-
mone the gas consisted of CO? 82-1, 01:7, N 162.—Ann. Ch.
Phys., TV, XXv, 559,
27. Note on Rhinosaurus ; by O. C. Marsu.—In the June num-
ber of this Journal (p. 461), I proposed the name Fhinosaurus
for a new genus of Mosasauroid reptiles, As this name proves to
be preoccupied, it may be replaced by Zylosaurus. The name
umphosaurus, since suggested by Prof. Cope, cannot be retained,
4S It was given to a genus of lizards in 1843 by Fitzinger.
IIL Zoonroey anp Borany.
1. Note on Intelligence in Monkeys; by ids as have
wn
two species of Cebus in my study, C. capueinus, and a ha
(. apella. The former displays the usual traits of monkey ingen-
148 Scientific Intelligence.
ing their interior appearances, no doubt in search of food. To
prevent his escape I fastened him by a leather strap to the slats
of the cage, but he soon untied the knot, and then relieved him-
self of the stra by cutting and drawing out ~ threads which
a the flap for the buckle. He then used the strap
He was accustomed to catch his — need: potatoes, fruit,
ae ), with his hands, when thrown to ometimes the
fell short three or four feet. One da rte seized ae — and
]
of his hand. This Soria he constantly i ote rea and
biteltipence which must have been originated by some mone
ince no lower or ancestral type of Mammals possess the hands
necessary for its accomplishment. Whether originated by Jack,
or by some ancestor of the forest who used vines for the same
parpore, cannot be readily ascertaine
a punishment, the animal would only exert himself in this
way Wik not watched; as soon as an eye was directed to him,
he would cease. In this he displayed distrust. He also usually
exhibited the disposition to accumulate to be quite superior to
unger. Thus he always appropriated all the food within reach
‘before beginning to eat. ba: different pieces were offered to
him, he transferred the first to his hind feet to make room for
more; then filled his mouth and hands, and concealed portions
behin a him. With a large piece in his hands, he would pick the
of.— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., April, pg p. 40.
2. Curious Habit of a Snake ; by Mr. Corr. Bees Cope made
the following remarks :—I had for some tim specimen of
Cyclophis tito received from he Macon, N. C., through the
kindness of rrow, living in dian ca bi d
led to the opinion ‘that it is of ‘aul or bua lovine habits. It
were pesoglinead by him; and they were found to be bel ome
tical with the species found in beds of infusorial earth in Uta
and described by Ehre: mene, showing that the latter must have
sin and Botany. 149
red alge.
cretions of silica. On making a thin section of one of these con-
lg a pair of legs of a coleopterous insect was visible in the
= Sade ; the greater part of the concretion was made up of petrified
alge,
I e of the ant springs at the California geysers, having a
Seaorainre of 198° F., he found two kinds of Conferva, one
capillary, weviblag Hydrocroe cis Bischoffit, but larger, the other
a filament, with globular enlargements at intervals, In another
spring, the temperature 174° F., many Oscillarie were found,
which by the interlacement of their Salen fibers formed a semi-
gelatinous mass ; and also two diatoms. In the water of the creek
y the a enence of free sulphuric acid, and Dr. Blake suggests
that thi 18 may account for the rarity of diatoms.—Proe. Cal. Acad.
Sei., iv, 183, 189, 193
4, Life in the Mammoth Cave. The Mammoth Cave and its
penis or ceeiehions of the Fishes, Insects and and
the and a
general ; by A. S, ek Spe In., and F. W. Purnam, Editors of
the American a Neem 62 pp. 8vo. Salem, 1872. —This excel-
lent and most intere sting memoir first appeared i in the American
Naturalist for aan er, 1871, and January, 1872. It. treats of
One of the most curious departments of natural history,—the sud-
terranean life of the continent and world, and is illustrated by two
Plates and many wood-cuts. The work is got up in fine style, and
is issued wy) _ palsape gern Agency at Sal
- Re eprod n of Sponges.—Mr. H. id Carter has an impor-
tant article on mie subject in the Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. for June,
‘nd also in the same number he describes two new sponges
~ Antarctic Sea, and a new species of Tethya from Shet and.
egy Brown's first Botanical Paper, “ The Botanical
ae wo " Angus,” which was read before the Edinburgh Nat-
: S. records last summer by Dr. Carru athers,
gine in oe J ournal of Botany, British and esi for
. A rarer plants
- i i. e seaclt common in Scotland, but this is far fro
y the sti It has of late been. asserted that the Eee os
150 Scientific —
the Drosera have the power, when a s on body is applied to their
upper surface, of contracting and enclosing the substance so
applied, by this means in many cases proving a trap to those
insects which happen to light upon them. The examination of this
fact is certainly worth the attention of the naturalist. In the sec-
ond edition of Withering’s ‘Botanical Arrangement,’ it is alleged
that this phenomenon was observed immediately to follow the
application of the substance. But it appears from works of a late
leaf was completely folded together. The same author observes
that when an insect is placed upon a leaf it naturally endeavors
the pressure of the hairs, which cannot be great, but rather from
the nature of the fluid which they exude. After the hairs have
thus enclosed the animal the leaf re — to contract, and by
very considerable time, nor did I at all ———: _ But as it must
be owned that these were made with a pin instead of an insect,
I eaniiot onhaad to contradict the fact, but ‘ids to blame the
| mode in which the trials were made. For it is well known to
. every one who has seen this plant in the growing state that many
Q of its leaves are generally folded, and if these are opened there
. is always eae some prises enclosed. If, therefore, the Drosera
is endowed with such a power (and there is the strongest reason
to believe it is) we shall have some difficulty in accounting for it
on Phage merely mechanical.
erman — mn sation to was probably Roth. In our
~ Di longifolia by Men cg of New Jersey is recorded, a bee
thought to be wholly ne
7. Prantl’s memoir spies Inuline, an inaugural Pateow ele we
believe, mdi by pene University, and printed in Bot. Zeit.,
1870, No. 39, is thus noticed :—
“The results obtained ry the author of this memoir are in all
evi ea features in oe with what MM. Nigeli and Sachs
have said of inulin
hydrate of carbon, which differs from starch, cellulose, and lichen-
ine, in never taking o on an organic form. Its fixity sufficiently
differentiates it from dextrine. It seems to approach most nearly
to cane-sugar. P
“ Tnuline is constantly found in plants in the form of a solution
of 1 part of inuline to 7 of water. As in artificial solutions, 0-01
gram of inuline saturates 100 cub. centims. of water, we may 8U
Zoology and Botany. 151
ferent families, but especially in the Composite. The Dahlia an
certain Helianthi contain considerable quantities of it.
rom a physiological point of view, inuline plays exactly the
part of one of those nutritive principles which are put in reserve,
or of sugar, and it is only on its arrival in the root that it takes on
rmed,
8. The Hrysiphei of the United States. 26 species are enumer-
ated in Seemann’s (now Trimen and Baker’s) Journal of Botany for
inquirende. A supplement appears in the June number. 4. 6.
Kan-sun is the name of a Chinese culinary vegetable, known
under the English name of cane-shoots, upon which Dr. Hance has
the American “ green corn,” but of a peculiar richness and delicacy.
He has ascertained that these cane-shoots are the solid base of a
iz, of Hydropyrum latifolium of Grisebach, which is so very
nearly allied to our American H. esculentum, i. e., t ni
aquatica, that, if not the very same, Dr, Hance thinks it probable
cae ice may afford similar esculent roots,—which may be
Worth attending to. Pane
10. Martius, Hlora Brasiliensis, fase. 55, contains Violacew, Sau-
si istinct order, with indications of neare
affinities to Pa ia and to Hypericacee than to iolacee),
(well including Samydacee), Cistacew, and Canellace,
, a single genus and species, by the editor, Prof.
ichler ; Tropeolacee (which we like to see kept separate from
Some acute remarks), by the late Dr. Rohrbach, | w
death is much to be regretted. Systematic botanists are few in
Germany. As
-
152 Scientific Intelligence.
IV. AsrTrRoNomy.
1. On the Temperature of the Surface of the Sun; by J.
Errcsson.—It will be recollected that Messrs. M. E. Vicaire and
hare ah case read some papers before the Academy of
Sciences at Paris last January, showing that the temperature of
radiation ‘of a mass of fused iron weighing 7 ‘000 pounds, raised by
i in rsh furnace to a temperature of 3,000° F., has
between its temperature and that of the Sereniar medi
Some eminent scientists, however, accepting Dulong’s conclusions
and formula, assert positively that the stated assumption is incor-
rect. In so doing they apparently eee the Rp insep-
arable from the Newtonian doctrine, namely, that the conduct-
ing power of the radiating body stiviita be e pertect ; eee at bet
instant the temperature pervading the interior mass should b
transmitted to the surface.* It needs no aeitisiiaerattoit to hve
from that observed by nace and Petit. The investigation in-
stituted by those experimentalists has in reality established only
tain conditions, but by no means th rue radiant energy
given temperatures. M. E. Vicaire and Sainte-Claire Deville,
therefore, commit a serious mis in assu at the quantity
high temperatures has been determined. It may be observed that
the relation between the time of prc and the guantity of heat
transmitted tf radiation which aa and Petit soy agi also
2°75 posed of n hammere , charged with asa
dls e ‘othe by a wheel applied within the sphere, revolving at a f 30
rm nute, th al action of which brings the particles of the cen 1
portion of the flui pidly i n the thin spherical shell, that the
apparently absurd condition of perfect conductivity has been practically f Hed.
u experim with this radiator, enclosed in ap
exhausted vessel kept at a constant temperature, has homerppe that Ne
law relating to radiant heat, up to a differential temperature of 100° Fahr. (beyond
which the investigation has not extended), is rigorously corr correati< ote’ ubject will -
fully di in a future article.
Astronomy. 1538
misled Pouillet regarding the temperature of the solar surface,
which he computed at 1,461° C., or at most 1,761° C. i
well to bear in mind that Pouillet had himself ascertained with
d
on the surface of the earth; and also the retardation suffered dur-
per minute for each square foot of the surface of the sun. Con-
sidering the imperfect means employed by Pouillet, his “ pyrhe-
liometre,” the exactness of his determination of solar energy is
temarkable. The truth is, however, that the near approach to ex-
acthess was somewhat fortuitous, the eminent physicist having
olu
that an intensity of 1,461° ©. or 1,761° C., could not possibly
. :
Sainte-Claire Deville concludes his essay on so ar temperature
thus :—« Ty ith my first estimate I believe that this
en numbers which result from the experiments of M. Bunsen, and
°se published long ago by M. Debray and myself.” The Krone
a ans then agree that the temperature ©: 3
"°€S Not exceed the intensity produced by the combustion of
154 Scientific Intelligence.
organic substances, their grounds for this assumption being, as we
have seen, Dulong’s oe deter 2 to - velocity of cooling at
high temperatures t Dulong and Petit did not carry their in-
vestigations pr soul besenia the siaenients of boiling mereury ;
hence their formula relatin ng to high temperatures is mere theory,
the soundness of which we have now been enabled to test most
sodas by cern the radiant power of a mass of fused
tal raised to a temperature of 3,000° F., 30 inches in ie
qu
me assumed by Pou a It may be pos itively asserted, more-
over, that an increase of the dimensions of our radiator to any
ettetit, laterally or saiesiy. could not augment the intensity or
the dynamic energy developed by a given area. Again, Dulong’s
formiila, as applied by omy hay shows that the emissive power of
a metallic radiator, raised t a temperature of 3,000°, reaches the
illet
high temperature of 3,000°, we have only ‘6 ow in a similar
manner the amount of energy develo apes: by a enetallie radiator of
low temperature, to be enabled to ip — siden
made for this purpose with a paratus of different foetal, the ; renalts
having proved substantially alike. The device most readily de
scribed keapacte! of a \ spherical vessel charged ~ Lords suspended
within onstant tempera
ture. Re seme pee show that, when by “aifferential tempera
ture is 65°, the enclosure being maintained at 60°, while the § game
is 125°, the dynamic energy transmitted to the enclosure
tion is confirmed by the fact that, du uring the summer solstice at
noon, when the sun’s differential radiant intensity is 65°, the so
Astronomy. 155
first mentioned intensity will therefore amount to 3000 337 units
for each degree of differential temperature ; while for the low in-
tensity it will be = =0°080 unit for each degree of differential
temperature, Consequently, the ratio of the radiating energy will
337 :
= (030 +21 times greater at 3,000° than at 65°. spe M.
Vicaire, on the authority of Dulong, states that the ratio will be a
hundred fold greater for an increase of only 600°. According to
i i n
of energy increases several thousand times when the temperature
18 Increased from 65° to 3,000°. Newton, then, as our experi-
ments prove, is incomparably nearer the truth than the French
;.Perimenters; and possibly future research will prove that
the emissive power of cast iron is relatively greater in a state of
fusion than when solid, or merely incandescent. This observed
.
temperature, and the totally different conditions of the radiators,
the observed discrepancy is not too great to admit of satisfactory
hation,
aS ati
we fallacy of Dulong’s formula relating to high temperatures
having been it wi necessa
1 lge to be discussed in this article. It should, however, be men-
ped that the result of the measurement of solar intensity March
1872, before referred to, proves the correctness of our peas
demonstrations, showing that the temperature of the surface of the
“Un is at least 4,036,000° F.—Wature, April 25.
156 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
2. Aurora of February 4.—Prof. Gags writes to one of the
he from San Domingo, under date of June 18th, that about
. 4, and with little doubt on that evening (since it is not prob-
bis that there was another there), “ We were sitting on the
orch, ripete the north, when my mo ther called our attention toa
dull red glow on the northern sky martes —_e 30° high,
considerably above the pole star; you kpc w we are in 18° N. At
rst dae: impression was that it was the elsehon of at on clouds
e prairie on fire—but there were no clouds; all of the stars
3 and 9 p. M.—See, for observations in Australia, page 158.
3. Edinburgh Astronomical Observations. Vol. xt, 1860-
1870.—A very large and thick volume, containing besides Astro-
nomical Observations of the es Observatory of Edinburgh,
with the Transit aad Mural Circle, and Star Catalogues ary during
each ofthe years of the decade 1860 to 1870, 0 occupying 761 pages;
also Meteorological tables for Scotland and Scottish towns, ac
counts of storms, and a J ng memoir on the Great Pyramid in
gypt, giving measurements of all the Pernice rr Rie
detailed measurements of the great Pyramid of Jee The
volume closes with ne several annual Reports to thie’ Board of
Visitors, and a paper on Auroral and other Faint-Light Spectros
copy in 1871. It is ilustented by 56 plates, 37 of which relate to
the Pyramids, and two to Faint-Light Spectrosco
4, Astronomical and Meteorological Observations verb at the
. S. Naval Observatory during the year 1869, Commodore
B. F. Sanps, U.S. N., Superintendent. Publis hed’ “authori
of the Hon. Secretary of the N avy. xliv and 396 pages 4to, wit
an Appendix of 132, xv and 332 pages. Washington. 1872.—
Nearly 400 pages of ‘this Report are devoted to the results of the
observations of 1869. Appendix I. contains the ley on the:
Solar Eclipse of the year, by Prof. Newcomb, U. 8. N., Prot
Asaph Hall, U.S. N., Prof. Wm. Harkness, U.S. N., and Prof
J. R. Eastman, U.S. N., illustrated by several cuts and two
plates. Appendix IE, running to 332 pages, is devoted to tables
pertaining to the catalogue of stars in progress in the observatories
with the mural circle. The volume is a record of a great amount
of excellent work.
Y. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Height of Mt. cary! and Mt. Baker.—Officers of the
owe Survey, Prof. Davidson and Mr, Lawson, have determined
the height of Mt. Rainier to we | 14,444 feet, or 4 feet greater than
that of Mt. Shasta. It is situated in latitude 46° 51/ 09” and lom-
a 121° 45’ 28”, Prof. Davidson says that there are glaciers
‘0
‘al. Acad, Sei. 1, 157.
Glaciers on the Mountains of the Paci acific Coast.—Prof.
Derieon obeerves: with respect to the first notice of glaciers 0?
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 157
the Pacific slope of N. America, that Lieutenant (now General)
Aug, V, autz, U. S. A., attempted to ascend Mt. Rainier in
1856 or 1857, but found his way barred by great glaciers; and
that Mr. Coleman, of the Alpine Club, ascended Mt. Baker in
1869, and published that year a description of the glaciers, in
“i Magazine with illustrations.—Proc. Cal. Acad. Sei., iv,
, 1871,
3. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.—With Jan-
uary of 1871, this academy commenced the third series of the
Volumes, commenced in 1857 , and is sold for $42 to members, and
$3.75 per volume to the public. The first series of 8 volumes
he first series of the Journal of the Academy consists of eight
octavo volumes. The new series, in quarto, was commenced in
1847, and seven volumes have been published. The price per
volume is $10,
4. Memorie della Societa dei Spettroscopisti Italiani ; edited by
close of last y
aris, an
has since been added, that is at Florence, by Donati
An Italian Society has been formed for the prosecution of
Spectroscopic observations and their publication, and four numbers
of their Memoirs, corresponding to the first four months of 1872,
for the protuberances ; by A. Secchi. (Two plates.)
by P rg
y +. Tacchini. (Two plates.)
diene Fab a f
. Tibution; by A. Secchi. 2. Spectroscopic pictures of sun’s
limb, made at athioess Rome, and Padua, on the 1ith and 12th of
December, 1871, by Tacchini, Secchi, and Lorenzoni. (One plate).
April, 1, On the deviation of the lines of ve spectrum due to
ange of temperature of the prism; by P. ‘
i sae pictures of the sun’s hab, made at Palermo and Rome in
158 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
August and November, 1871; by P. Tacchini. 3. Spectroscopie
observations of solar spots made it Florence; a letter from Prof.
Donati to P. Tacchini. (One e.)
5. Monthly Record of Results f Observations in Meteorology,
Terrestrial Magnetism, ete. Taken at the Melbourn e Observatory,
during January, 1872; together muh abstracts ein meteorologi-
cal observations obtained at various localities in Victoria. Under
9 ae of R. L. J. Ellery, Government Astronona
4 pp. 8vo. Published by authority of her Majesty’s govern
xi in Victoria—Besides various meteorological tables, this
Report contains the following on the
Aurora of February, 1872.—An Aurora Australis was visible
shortly after midnight on the 5th until the early morning, coincident
with which great magnetic disturbances took place, particularly of
the horizontal force, and to a less extent the declination. ey com-
menced at midni night. The maximum disturbance occurred short!
before 3 a. M., when the minimum —_— declination was eens
and continued until 5.15 a. M., when the maximum declination
is-
until toward midnight of the 6th, they cease e
rang he horizontal foree occurred between 1" and 3H A. My
amounting to 0°2940 of the absolute British —_ - maximum
ceurring at 1" a, M., and the minimum at The motion
o
of the needle was at times exceedingly moiarey saoeing once within
a pot minutes through 0°1737 of the evens unit.
den’s Exploring and Surv dition.—This ex-
even in
midst of work; a the rivers have been so full that we 2
not profitably have gone into the higher mountains earlier, if
we had been ready. Dr. Hayden, with his division of the party,
is at Fort Ellis, my a 4 to start in, We ex pect to meet
expo Inse —
S. Packarp, Jr. 18 pp., with three beautiful plate e nt
the ee of _ Mr. Packard here re Vematus
ventricosus anis, Alletabus Rhois, Telephorus orus Fraxint,
Chrysomela sielapens Mysia 13-punctata and Chrysopa oculata.
. Petroleum in San Domingo.—Mr. A. P. Marvine writes to
one a the editors, in a itso dated aks or June 16,
as follows: “Apropos to Mr, Gabb’s article ‘ On the ce of
Petroleum in the Island of Santo Domingo,’ in the rs are number
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159
of this Journal, I would like to call your attention to some very
similar remarks on the same subject in the ‘Report of the Com-
mission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo’ (pp. 109-110), which was
issued by Government about a year ago.
“When at the spot in question I gathered about a quart of the
oil from one of the pits, and a small bottle of the gas which bub-
bles from the well, and still have them well sealed.”
9 erican Association.—The next meeting of the Associa-
tion will be held at Dubuque, Iowa, instead of San Francisco,
commencing August 2ist. Dr. J. Lawrence Situ is president
for the year,
OBITUARY.
the earlier part of the season on board the United States Coast
urvey steamer Bache, in superintending a series of dredgings
ape San Antonio, Cuba, and the coast of Yucatan; and
however, was prevented y .
not long since to the residence of his father-in-law, near Baltimore,
he became gradually worse, and died there on the 26th of May.
gee marine
rvertebrates of Grand Manan, published by the Smithsonian
Tastitution in 1853, and which is still a standard work on the zodl-
— of the mouth of the Bay of Fundy.
hortly afterward he was a pointed zodlogist to the North
Pacific exploring exped first under Captain Cadwallader
e
0 Chicago to take charge of the general affairs of the Chicago
" : is
. During that interval he visited Florida on several occa-
Sl0ns, and always obtained numerous interesting collections for
the Academy,
160 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
and in all probability influenced the state of his health. Among
these works were synopses of the Mollusca of the east coast of
North America, and of the Crustacea of both coasts, to be pub-
lished by the Smithsonian Institution.—X., in Harper’s Weekly.
The meeting of the Chicago Academy of June 11th was devoted
to addresses in memory of Dr. Stimpson by the President and
other members. We cite the following paragraph from the re
marks of Mr. E. W. Blatchford : :
“T am reminded, Mr. President, that this is the second time m
the brief history of our Academy that we have been called upon
to mourn the loss of a secretary. ey were both men of marked
characters, of marked differences. In the scientific world they
were typical men—the one of our young West,
maturer East—the one of the undeveloped fields afforded by our
investigated Atlantic slope, and foreign field of scientific research.
Differing, however, in early opportunities and training, in subse-
quent associations, and in the fields of their investigations, Kennr
cott and Stimpson were yet one; one in high aims, one in entht-
each called away. To the one the summons came in the Arcti¢
regions, upon the banks of the Youkan: to the other in the tropics,
upon the banks of that wider, deeper stream, the study of whose
mysteries had lured him on in spite of pain and weakness. Al
ready are the foundations laid and the walls rising of our neW
ations to these men, whose lives have been consecrated to laying
fo the foundations of scientific truth.” ;
Mr. Roser Swirt, of Philadelphia, died on the 5th of May, 4
the seventy-seventh year of his age r. Swift from 1852 labore
much in West Indian Conchology, and in 1863 published his “ Re-
searches of the Virgin Islands.” “He also contributed, through col-
lections made at his expense on St. Thomas and Porto Rico, to the
ornithological collections of the Smithsonian Institution, on which
a report was made by Dr. Bryant of Boston. :
GroreE Rosert Gray, an eminent British ornithologist, and
Assistant Keeper of Zoology in the British Museum, died on the
6th of May last. He was born in July, 1808.
Vol, PLATE:
“Panderscn & Crisand, Now
DATOLITE OF BERGEN HILL.
Plate Il.
. AND ARTS, III, Vol. IV,
AM. JOUR. SCI
0. H. from nature a
nd on wood.
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS,
[THIRD SERIES]
Arr. XXIII. — Researches in Actino- Chemistry. Memoir First.
On the Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum ; by JoHN WIL-
U5: dit
Science and of Medicine in the University of New York.
the maximum of intensity in both occurs at the same point,
at Is, in the yellow space. This view was abandoned on the
Publication of the well known experiments of Sir W. Herschel,
who showed that in certain cases the maximum is below the red.
Subsequently Melloni having discovered the singular heat-
dsparency of rock-salt, proved that when a prism of that
Substance is used the maximum in question is as far below the
ed as the red is below the yellow, but that if the light has
Passed through flint-glass the maximum approaches the red, if
through crown-glass it passes into the red, if through water or
alcohol it enters the yellow.
€ case of the sun’s spectrum the distribution of heat was
More closely examined by Prof. Miiller, whose results in a gen-
eral manner confirmed the views then held, that the invisibie
tadiation below the red greatly exceeds that in the visible spec-
; and still more recently Dr. Tyndall, examining the spec-
ttum of the electric light through rock-salt, showed that th
“utve indicating the distribution “in the region of the dar
“ays beneath the red, shoots suddenly upward in a steep and
Massive peak, a kind of Matterhorn of heat, which quite
Am. Jour, Sce1.—Tairp — Vou. IV, No. 21,—SepremBer, 1872, ;
162 J. W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum.
under unexceptionable circumstances; the beam of electric
light had practically undergone no atmospheric absorption,
and the optical refracting train was of rock-salt.
Sir J. Herschel had shown in 1840 that when the sun’s rays
are dispersed by a flint-glass prism, the distribution of the heat
toward the less refrangible region is not continuous, but there
are three maximum points. These points, as shown by Dr.
of the spectrum.
In view of the preceding statement and others that might be
given, it may, I think, be affirmed that the general opinion held
at the present day as to the constitution of the spectrum is this,
that there exists a heat spectrum in the less refrangible regions,
a light spectrum in the intermediate, and a spectrum producing
chemical action in the more refrangible regions. An exper
mental attempt to correct this view, and to introduce a more
.
accurate interpretation, will not be without interest, especially
subject of photometry. In this memoir I shall offer some
experiments and suggestions respecting the heat of the spec
trum, and in another, shortly to be published, shall consider the —
distribution of the so-called chemical rays. Among the numer —
ous problems of actino-chemistry there are none more 1mp0l”
tant than these.
All the experiments hitherto made on the heat of the ee :
trum have been conducted on the principle of exposing a the?
mometer in the differently colored spaces. Such was Sir W-
*
J. W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum. 163
Herschel’s method. Leslie used a differential with small bulbs.
Melloni, Miiller, Tyndall, a thermo-electric pile, the form pre-
ferred being the linear. This was advanced successively
ne all the radiations, and the deflections of the multiplier
oted.
Is not this method | defective? Does it not neces-
sarily lead to incorrect results
There is an inherent defect in the prismatic spectrum—a
points insisted on is the a of using wave-lengths in the
ent and discussion o
Which T believe I was the first to make, and which I renew
of the prismatic or dispersi haps b t
: ; persion spectrum, may perhaps be Mos
<a sfactorily recognized on examining such as trum by the
we gama or interference one. By the aid of fig. ct
one. . :
= may be done 2 J > X
ay f | Fie 1. NS wy Pe
aA pop E F ae H
ee seat
| | |
rE Diffraction Spectrum
| foie bapa t
| |
ee ee ee
Regarding the space between the fixed lines D and E as rep-
i
Tesenting the central region, in each the fixed lines D and E are
ca coincident. Che cttw lines are laid off —— pacsecas
€y appear through the flint-glass prism of the spectro-
Scope; those of the diffraction are arranged according to their
164. Sf. W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum.
wave-lengths. It thus appears that in the prismatic, from the
fixed line p to A, the yellow, orange, and red regions occupy
but little more than half the space they do in the diffraction;
while the green, blue, indigo, and violet, from the fixed line E
to H, occupy nearly double the space in the prismatic that they
do in the diffraction spectrum. The general result is that in
the prismatic the less refrangible regions are much compressed,
and the more refrangible much dilated. And it is plain that
the same will hold good in a still greater degree for any invist-
pemye that are below the red and above the violet respect-
ively.
an increased heat for that region; and on the contrary, the dila-
tation of the more refrangible would give an exaggerated dimr
nution of heat for that space. But if it were possible to make
satisfactory heat measures on the diffraction spectrum, im which
the colored spaces and fixed lines are arranged according t0
their wave-lengths, the admission would be substantiated.
In view of these facts I did attempt many years ago to make
heat measures on the diffraction spectrum. But so small is the
heat that, as may be seen in the Philosophical Magazine (Mareh,
1857), the results were unsatisfactory. More recently I have
tried another method of investigation, on principles which I
will now explain.
For the sake of clearness, restricting our thoughts for the
moment to the more familiar case of the visible spectrum, if we
desired to ascertain the true distribution of heat, would not the
proper method be to collect all the more refrangible rays into
one focal group, and all the less refrangible into another foca
group, and then measure the heat that each gave? If the view
currently received be correct, would not nearly all the heat
observed be found in the latter of these foci, and little, if
indeed any, be found in the former? But if all the various
regions of the spectrum possess equal heat-giving powers, WO
not the heat in each of these foci be the same ay
Let us give greater precision to this idea. Using Angstrom®
J. W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum. 165
wave-lengths—the length at the line a is 7604, and that at H?
3933, and these lines are not very far from the less and more
tefrangible ends of the visible spectrum respectively. The mid-
dle point of this spectrum is at 57 68, which may therefore be
called its optical center. This is a little beyond the sodium
line D, which is 5892. Now if by suitable means we reunite
all the rays between 7604 and 5768 into one focus, and all the
tays between 5768 and 3933 into another focus, are we not in a
Position to determine the true distribution of the heat? Should
the heat at these two foci be sensibly the same, must not the
conclusion at present held be abandoned ? a0
In these investigations the rays of the sun be used, it is
necessary to restrict the examination to the visible spectrum,
excluding the invisible red and invisible violet radiations. O
these the earth’s atmosphere exerts not only a very powerful
train
‘pectrum, and that the indications they are giving are reliable.
This variable absorptive action of the atmosphere depends
partly on changes in the amount of water vapor, and partly on
the altitude of the sun. At midday and at midsummer it is at
‘minimum. The disturbance is not merely a thermochrose,
for both ends of the spectrum are attacked. It is a matter of
‘ays. But if the day be clear and the sun’s altitude sufficient,
the visible spectrum may be considered as unaffected.
+t should be borne in’ mind that the envelopes of the sun
himself exert an absorptive action, which is powerfully felt in
the ultra-violet region, as is indice the numerous fixe
lines crowded together in that region. e force of this remark
will be appreciated on examining the plate above referred to,
m the Philosophical Magazine for May, 1848.
. It seems then that all the conditions necessary for the solu-
tion of this problem will be closely approached if we make use
°t prisms constituted of any substance which is completely color-
the eye, and confine our measures to the visible spectrum,
collecting all the radiations between the fixed line A and the
center of that spectrum just beyond p into one focus, and all
*
166 «od. W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum.
the radiations between that center and H? into another focus,
and by the thermopile or any other suitable means measuring
the heat of these foci.
Such is the method I have followed in obtaining the meas-
ures now to be presented: but before giving them there are cer-
tain preparatory facts which I wish to submit to the considera-
tion of the reader.
(1.) In the mode of experiment hitherto adopted, no special
care has been taken to ascertain with accuracy the position of
the “extreme red,” yet that is held to be the point from which
on one side we are to estimate the invisible and on the other
the visible spectrum. Different persons, perhaps because of a
different sensitiveness of their eyes, will estimate that position
differently. The red light shades off gradually—it is almost
impossible to tell when it really comes to an end. <A linear
thermopile, such as is commonly used, is liable under these cit
cumstances to give deceptive results, and any error in its indi-
cations counts in a double manner. It not only diminishes the
value of one spectrum, but it adds that diminution to the value
of the other. The force of this remark will be understood by
considering the best experiments hitherto made on this subject,
those of Dr. Tyndall, as related in his “Heat a Mode 0
Motion” (London edition, 1870, p. 420, &c.). In the case of
the electric light, the result yielded by those experiments was
that the heat in the invisible is eight times that of the visible
region. But had there been an error in estimating the post
tion of the extreme red by only two millimetres, so much would
have been taken from the invisible and added to the visible,
that they would have been brought to equality, and then the
slightest turn of the screw that carried the pile toward the dark
space would have given a preponderance to the visible. It's
obvious, therefore, that there cannot be certainty in such meas
ures, unless the fixed lines are resorted to as standard points.
2.) A ray which has passed through a solution of sulphate
of copper and ammonia possesses no insignificant heating powe®
I took a stratum of a solution of that salt, of such strength that
it only permitted waves to pass which are of less length than
4860. Seen in the spectroscope, the colors transmitted through : 3
it commenced with a thin green fringe, followed by blue, ind .. 7
.
violet. It therefore gave rays in which, according tO ag
accepted views, little or no heat should be detected. Yet
found that such rays produced one-ninth of the heat of the solar : a
eam. Does not this indisputably show that the more relay
gible rays have : higher calorific power than is commonly :
imputed to the
8.) Again, by the use of the apparatus presently 10 >
be
deseri d, I found no difficulty in recognizing heat in the violet Le
?
J. W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum. 167
(4.) If waves of light falling upon an absolutely black sur-
face, and becoming extinct thereby, are transmuted into heat, if
the warming of surfaces by incident light be nothing more than
the conversion of motion into heat—an illustration of the modern
doctrine of the correlation of forces—heat itself being only “a
duce the same amount. For though an undulation of the latter
Description of the Apparatus employed.
The optical arrangement I have employed for carrying the
foregoing suggestions into practice is represented by fig. 2, and
™ a horizontal section by fig. 8.
lack
cient to permit the light of the slit to pass. After refraction
the dispersed rays fall as a spectrum on a concave me
lel rays. I have sometimes used one of speculum metal,
Ut more frequently one silvered on its
168 &. W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum.
this mirror there are therefore three foci. Ata distance of eleven
inches there is one, ¢, fig. 3, giving a spectrum image of the sun.
Still further there is a second, f, which is a spectrum image of the
slit a, in which, if the prism be at its angle of minimum devia-
tion, and the other adjustments be correctly made, will be seen
the Fraunhofer lines. Again, still farther off, at g, is a focal
image of the rectangular opening of the black paper ¢ ¢, on the
Fig. 2.
front face of the prism. This image, arising from the recombin-
ation of all the dispersed rays, is consequently white. The
second and third foci are at distances from the mirror depending
on the distance of the slit a, and the black paper ¢ ¢, respect
ively.
With the intention of being certain that the light coming
through the slit @ is falling properly on the rectangular opening
in the prism screen ¢c,a small looking-glass is placed at p. he
experimenter, sitting near the multiplier m, can then see Gi
tinctly the reflected image of that opening.
t the place where the second focal image with its Fraut-
hofer lines forms, two screens of white paste- , A, % are
arranged. By suitably placing the former of these, /, the more
refrangible rays may be intercepted, and in like manner by the
J. W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum. 169
‘
quity to its incident rays as to throw the focal images suffici-
ently on one side. Yet this obliquity must not be greater than
's actually necessary for that purpose, or the purity of the sec-
ond spectrum, with its Fraunhofer lines, will be interfered with.
Fig. 3.
it the place of the third focus, arising from the reunion of the
Spersed rays, is the thermopile g, connected by its wires kk
With the multiplier m. ;
_henever any of the visible rays of the Fraunhofer spectrum
are intercented by advancing either of the screens A, 2, the
image on » face of the pile ceases to be white. It becomes of
cular ray, or of any selected combination of rays. The screens
can be ar ged oe us to reach any designated Fraunhofer Tine.
The pile have used is of the common square form; a linear
Pile would not answer. The focal image on the pile is of very
170 soo. ;W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum.
much greater width than the slit a, on account of the obliquity |
of the front face of the prism.
y removing the screen h, and placing the screen 7 so that
its edge coincides with the line A of the Fraunhofer spectrum, all
the invisible heat radiations of less refrangibility than the red
are cut off, except the contaminating ones arising from the gen-
eral diffusion of light by the substance of the prism. Under
these circumstances the image on the pile will be white, and
the multiplier will give a deflection representing the heat of the
visible and the extra violet regions. If then the screen be
advanced still further, until it has intercepted all the less
refrangible regions up to the sodium line D or a little beyond,
that is, to the optical center of the spectrum, the tint on the face
of the pile will be greenish-blue, and the multiplier will give a
measure of the heat of the more refrangible half of the visible
spectrum, together with that of the ultra-violet rays; the latter
portion may, however, be eliminated by properly using the
other screen h.
esides the error arising from stray heat diffused through the
spectrum, in consequence of the optical imperfection of the
prism, there is another which may be recognised on recollecting
the relative positions of the prism, the concave mirror, and the
face of the pile. It is evident that the prism, considered as 4
warm or a cool mass, is a source of disturbance, for the mirror
reflects its image, that is, the image of the prism itself, to the
pile. After the intromitted sunbeam has passed through the
prism for a short time, the temperature of that mass has risen,
and the heat from this source has become intermingled with the
proper spectrum heat. But this error is very easily eliminated.
It is only necessary to puta screen n in the path of the incoming
ray, between the slit and the prism, and note the deflection of
the multiplier. Used as we are here supposing, the multipher
as two zeros. The first, which may be termed the magnetie,
is the position in which the needles will stand when no current
is passing through the coil. The scale of the instrument should
be set to this. The other, which may be termed the working
zero, is formed by coupling the pile and the multiplier together,
and introducing the screen n between the intromitting slit a
the prism. On doing this it will probably be found that the
index will deviate a few divisions. Its position should be.
accurately marked at the beginning and close of each
measures, and the proper correction for them made. Th
turbing influences of the mass of the prism, of the mirror, and
of the pile itself, are thus eliminated. As respects the last, It
should not be forgotten that it may be affected by changes 1?
the position of the person of the experimenter himself.
'ith the intention of diminishing these errors, I have usually
J. W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum. 171
covered the upper and lower portions of the concave mirror dd
with pieces of black paper, so arranged as to leave a band of
sufficient width to receive and reflect the entire spectrum.
aa, fig. 4, is the upper paper, bb the lower, ce the uncovered
reflecting band, receiving the spectrum
rv. Had the spaces thus covered been
permitted to reflect, they would have
rendered more intense the image of the
Fig. 4.
could not be used in these delicate re-
: searches until proper arrangements were
applied. It was covered with a glass shade. The slightest cause
casioned currents in its included air, which perpetually drifted
and disturbed the needles. For this reason, and also
accurate reading, it is best to view the position of the index
tough a small telescope.
e combination of needles being nearly astatic, attention
Must be paid to their magnetic perturbations, whether arising
from local or other causes; and, since the vibrations are very
i. ample time must be given before the reading is ascer-
ed.
The condition of the face of the pile is of importance. It
Wil not answer—the surface so produced is too glossy and
rellecting. The plan I have found best is to take a glass tube
If an inch in diameter and six inches long, open at both ends.
and use it as a chimney. Api
the lower end, and the face of the pile to be blackened being held
Stanc
falling on it, Its quality of transmitting light is well known to
every one who has looked at the sun through a smoked glass.
e galvanometer I have used is calibrated according to the
ethod. e num given in this memoir do not
Ped the angles of deflection, but their corresponding
172). ;W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum.
The proper position of the intercepting screens h, 7, can often
be verified with precision by looking through blue cobalt glass.
This glass insulates a definite red, an orange, and a yellow ray
in the less refrangible regions, and then commencing with the
green, gives a continuous band to the end of the violet. Its
red ray begins at the less refrangible end of the spectrum, and
to receive all the radiations coming from the prism, and that
none are escaping past its edges,
The operations required are as follows :
The heliostat is to be set, and its reflected ray brought into
the proper position. The optical train is adjusted, the prism
being at its minimum deviation, and the concave mirror giving
a white image on the face of the pile. ‘
The screen h is then to be placed so that, without inten
any rays coming from the prism to the mirror, it cuts off
the Fraunhofer spectrum above H?. Be
e screen 7 is so placed as to cut off all rays less refrangible
than the sodium line p. More correctly, the screen should be
a little beyond p. The light on the face of the pile will now
be greenish-blue. ;
The screen n is then placed so as to intercept the intromitted
beam. When the needles of the multiplier come to rest they
give the working zero, which must be noted. ne
The intromitting screen n being now removed, the multiplier
will indicate all the heat of the more refrangible rays, that }
from a little beyond p up to H?._ The force corrected for the
working zero is to be noted. ;
screen 7 is then removed to the line A, so as to give all
the radiations between the lines A and H?. The light on the
J. W. Draper—Distribution of Heat in the Spectrum. 178
face of the pile is white, and the multiplier gives the whole
heat of the visible spectrum. By subtracting the foregoing
measure from this, we have the heat of the less refrangible
region, that is from a to the centre of the spectrum.
As a matter of curiosity, the experimenter may now, if he
pleases, remove the screens A,7; the light on the face of the pule
will still be white, and the multiplier will give the force of the
entire radiations, except so far as they are disturbed by the
thermochrose of the media. These measures, as not bearing
upon the problem under consideration, I do not give in the
following tables. :
Tnstead of advancing the screen 7 from the less toward the
“nt refrangible regions, I have very frequently moved h
om
mode of experimentation, as I did not find that its results dif-
fered in any important degree from those obtained as just
described.
The variation in different experiments may generally be
traced to errors in placing the screen ¢ with exactness on the
centre of the spectrum and on the line A. ;
or the sake of more convenient comparison, I have reduced
all the different sets of experiments to the standard of 100 for
the whole visible spectrum.
ov wave made use of four prisms: (1) rock salt ; (2) flint glass ;
(3) bisulphide of carbon ; (4) quartz, cut out of the crystal so
give a single image.
All the observations here recorded were made on days when
there was a cloud
Taste I,—Distribution of heat by rock-salt.
ries I. Series IT.
Heat of the whole Moet cite Maes sak on ee
@) see guste. ge
In this table the column marked Series L. gives the mean of
four sets of measures, and that marked II. of three, At the
ning of each set the rock-salt was repolished.
Taste IL— Distribution of heat by flint-glass.
Series I. Series IT.
(1) Heat of the whole visible spe trum,. .------- 100 —s-: 100
(2) . more refrangible region, -------- 49
(3) vy less « Rie
ig I. gives the mean of ten sets of measures, Series IL. of
eg i :
52
51 48
174 oo. W. Draper—Dstribution of Heat in the Spectrum.
TasieE IIll.—Distribution of heat by bisulphide of carbon.
Seri
sI. Series I.
(1) Heat of the whole visible spectrum, 100 100
(2) . more refrangible region,_--.-.--- 52 49
(3) = less “3 Dt iin ee 48 51
The sulphide employed was devoid of any yellowish tinge; it
was quite clear. Series I. is the mean of eight experiments,
Series IT. of ten.
Taste [V.— Distribution of heat by quartz.
: Series I. Series Il.
(1) Heat of the whole visible spectrum, ------_--- 100 100
(2 ye more refrangible region,_------- 49 53
£3) * less . sf Ge SEN NE 51 47
Series I. represents twenty-seven experiments, Series IL.
twelve. In the former two quartz prisms were used to increas€
the dispersion ; in the latter only one was employed.
Perhaps it may not be unnecessary for me to say that I have
repeated these experiments many hundred times during a perio
of several months, including the winter and the summer, vary-
ing the conditions as to the hour of the day, arrangement of the
paratus, &c., as much as I could, and present the foregoing
tables as fair examples of the results. Apprehending that the
heliostat mirror, which was of speculum metal, might exert
some disturbing influence on account of its faint reddish tinge, I
replaced it with one of glass silyered on the front face, but
could not detect any substantial difference in the results. k
The important fact clearly brought into view by these exper
ments is, that if the visible spectrum be divided into two equal
portions, the ray having a wave-length of 5768 being con
sidered as the optical center of such a spectrum, these portions
will present heating powers so nearly equal that we may impute
the differences to errors of experimentation. Assuming this as
true, it necessarily follows that in the spectrum any two series
of undulations will have the same heating power, no matter
what their wave-lengths may be.
But this conclusion leads unavoidably to a most important
modification of the views now universally held as regards the
transmutation of force. ae
From this point of view the conception that there exists 1?
an incident ray various principles disappears altogether. We
have to consider an incident ray as consisting solely of etherial
@.U, Shepard—Corundum of N. Carolina and Georgia. 175
ones atoms,—and these in their turn can give rise to con-
_ results, as when we gradually raise the temperature of a
-J9stance the oscillating movements of its molecules are
mparted to the ether, and waves of less and less length are
successively engendered.
she remark has been made that these results are essentially
sean with photometry. In fact, any thermometer is con-
"ted into a photometer, if its ball or other receiving surface
be coated with a perfectly opaque non-reflecting substance.
ae ae ea
sa XXIV.—On the Corundum region of North Carolina and
b corgia, with descriptions of two gigantic crystals of that species ;
oy Cartes UpHam Sueparp, Sr., Prof. of Natural History
jm Amherst College, Mass.
(Concluded from page 114.)
ey remains to speak of the corundum itself. This may be
'd to be eminently crystalline throughout, often in tolerably
ead crystals of considerable size, in a few instances, gigantic.
er form, as usual, is that of six-sided prisms or pyramids,
Sometimes the two combined; and exhibiting occasional trian-
gular faces belonging to the primary rhombohedron. Whether
176 CU. Shepard—Corundum of N. Carolina and Georgia.
massive or crystallized however, it is readily cleavable ; and the
crystals are remarkable for showing cleavage lines, whereby
their faces are transversely ruled off into lozenge-shaped areas,
often in a very beautiful manner. The prevailing colors are
blue and red, the latter often of a deep tint and handsome.
The blue is intense only in small patches, and shades off into
gray or pale yellowish gray. Thus far I have seen no single
remarkable for their translucency and internal regularity. Their
unfitness for cutting, therefore, would appear to result from their
too easy cleavage, rather than from other causes. The same crys-
tal often combines the red and blue shades of color; the latter tint,
if the form is pyramidal being the deepest at the base, and evin-
cing a tendency to traverse the center of the crystal nearly to its
apex, where the ruby color wholly replaces it, and sometimes
here presents itself with much intensity. The faces differ con-
siderably in smoothness and luster. Those belonging to the
prism, the primary rhombohedron, and the face perpendicular to
the axis, being the most perfect ; while those of the pyramids are
the most deficient in finish. In size, the crystals vary from @
quarter of an ounce up to a pound in weight, though the latter
are rare; while two have been foun
comparative dimensions. It repre-
sents them at about one-tenth the nat-
ural size.
The largest of the two is red at the ©
surface, but within of a bluish-gray.
This was found by Col. Jenks last au-
tumn at the Culsagee mine, Macon
o., N. C.; and occurred in a layer of
soft, almost pulverulent, vermiculite,
within four feet of the surface of the ground. We undoubtedly
owe the very perfect preservation of its form to the soft mater
ial in which it was reposited. Had it occurred ata greater
depth in the stratum, where the gangue is an unaltered ripido-
lite, its extrication except in fragments, would have been impo>
sible. The general figure is pyramidal, showing, howeveh
scarcely more than a single six-sided pyramid, whose summit }§
0. U. Shepard—Corundum of N. Carolina and Georgia. 177
shadings, where the eraciplie! abounds. The small triangular
Space between s and s refers to a cleavage face parallel with
one of the primary planes.
The sina
le ues Very uneven, from being coated by a brown vermicu-
lite, or altered ripidolite. Some of the lateral planes are coated
™ patches with a white pearly margarite. The general color of
3 tal is a grayish-blue, though there are spots, icularly
near the angles, where it is of a pale sapphire tint. ts greatest
AM. Jour, ate” as Serres, Vou. IV, No. 21.—SePTEMBER, 1872,
178 ©. U. Shepard—Corundum of N. Carolina and Georgia.
breadth is six inches, and its length rather above five. This
specimen also was found by Col. Jenks, while exploring for
corundum at a new locality in Rabun Co., Ga., at a spot about
16 miles west from Walhalla (S. C.), a little north of the pro-
n noting the associated rocks and minerals, we here fin ‘
hornblendic gneiss (with considerable spite) on one side 0
the vein (rarely on both sides), and ta
ner, though much more rarely, the diaspore is here found. 4p}
C. U. Shepard—Corundum of N. Carolina and Georgia. 179
with the margarite and other imbedded minerals. The amphod-
olite or indianite variety of anorthite also occurs at a few
or ruby color. Its associates are spinel (which is either red
or gray), rutile, biotite (phlogopite), a brown hornblende, a
grass-green arfvedsonite, a peculiar feldspar, and more rarely,
serpentine). Thus far, neither magnetite nor diaspore have
been detected as occurring in the aggregate at these places.
magnetite. But in the absence of quartz and the prevalence of
Magnesia, we discover a marked similarity of conditions with
the N. ©. and Chester localities. j
Concerning the localities in Delaware and Chester counties,
Pa. Lam unable to speak definitely. But all the specimens of
corundum I have examined from that
county, N. C., an entirely distinct region from that in the Blue
Tidge ‘first described, the corundum is mixed with —
re rutile. The specimens of blue corundum found within a
* See this Journal, vol. xi, ix, p. 271.
180 Works of Barrande.
crystals occurring at Norwich, ig were completely sur-
rounded by the allied species, fibrolit
Dolomitic limestone constitutes the aha repository of corun-
dum in other countries, as at Campo Longo, St. Gothard; and
of the emery, according to Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, in the Turk-
ish dominions, where he has pointed out the margarite, diaspore
and chloritoid as its distinguishing attendants
The examples from Mozzo, Piedmont, show a gangue of some
ompact iPaten of feldspar ; but, it is noticeable, with the be
sum. i to av poeta in dolomitic limestone; while he
larger crystals and cleavable masses from Ava, Hindostan,
Thibet and China, as well as those from ve Urals, were prob-
ably afforded by a region in some respects similar to that of the
mountainous district of Georgia and North Carolina; but of
the minerals immediately aeoate with it in those countries
we possess no reliable informatio
Amherst College, June 8, 1872.
Art. XXV.—Notice of some of the works of J. Barrande, with
extracts from he} remarks with reference to the mode of origin of
Paleozoic species.
Trilobites, Extrait du aippleaieys au vol. i. du Systéme
Silurien du centre de la Bohéme. Prague, 1871. 8vo, 282 pp.
2. Systéme Silurien du Sei de la Bohéme: Pies ii, Céphalo-
podes; 4™° Series, Pl. 351 4 460. 4to. ag So
3. Syst. Sil. ete. ; Céphal odes ; a Spe 1 istribution
horizontale et verticale “~ 6 éphalopodes, dans les Contrées
Siluriennes. 4to. Prague, 1
THE receipt of the above-named volumes, which we owe i
the kind ee of the author, Mr. Joachim Barrande, °
Prague, Bohemia, gives us a favorable opportunity for noticing
the , ektouiid "iad valuable labors of this accomplished natw-
For forty years or more, he has made the study of the ea
strata of Bohemia and of their fossils his principal objec His
first publication was a brief “‘ Preliminary Notice of the Silurian
Bede and the Trilobites of Bohemia,” issued in Leipzig
This was followed, in 1847 ‘id 1848, by a brief notice
the Bohemian Brachiopoda, published in two parts, a
* Prepared for this place by Professor Frank H. Bradley of Knoxville, Tennesse®
Barrande— Origin of Paleozoic Species. 181
In 1852, he commenced the publication of the large quarto
including 107 plates, appeared in 1865, followed, in 1866, b
h oe plates 108 to 244. The first liv-
was followed, in 1868, by the third series of plates, including
Nos, 245-35
Nos. 351-460, which is named at the head of our article, ap-
peared in 1870, accompanied by a volume of 263 pages of sup-
Radiates; and for the final one which is to give us all the de-
tails of the stratigraphical and lithological geology of the Bohe-
man basin. As a whole, these volumes will constitute one of
the grandest monuments ever erected to the energy, skill,
np and industry of one man, as well as to the constant
general distribution, a series of octavo pamphlets, including the
general asi
ney Tepresent, thus showing that his object has been purely
the Spread of information rather than personal credit for priority.
this series, we name one at the head of our article. He has
480 issued four pamphlets, entitled “ Défense des Colonies,” of
]
Which we propose to speak further on another oceasion
© supplementary text of the Cephatnpeds includes a thor-
ouch study and full summary of the general and detailed facts
of their distribution, at least so far as Silurian forms are con-
182 Barrande— Origin of Paleozoic Species.
interesting matter, that we feel justified in making considerable
extracts, especially from the closing Résumé général :—
“T. Relative importance of Cephalopods. As regards organiza-
tion, this order [Cephalopoda] is the first among Mollusks. It
can al;
innumerable. :
Thus far, the Cephalopods may be considered as oceupy1g
or disputing the first rank * *, but, in other respects, we mus
dail that the preéminence belongs to the tribe of Trilo-
ites. ‘They ess, in the first place, an incontestable an
well-marked preéminence over the Cephalopods as rega
riority. We know, in fact, that this tribe of Crustaceans col-
stitutes by itself almost the whole of the Primordial Silurian
fauna. The number of genera and species by which it is repre
sented in this fauna is already very considerable, and we se¢
that it tends to increase constantly, especially in England and
America. * * No authentic trace of Cephalopods has yet been
recognized in the same formations. The great prolific powe?
of the Mollusks of this order in the second et third faunas
authorizes us to think that, if they had existed under vane
generic and specific forms in the Primordial fauna, we show
find their remains as frequent as those of the Trilobites in the
Barrande— Origin of Paleozove Species. 188
multiplicity of specific forms, the Trilobites are far from possess-
Ing so marked a predominance. * * Although the Trilobites
maintain some numerical superiority, as regards species, in all
the three faunas, it has not been very noticeable. But, 1f we
consider only the second and third faunas, the predominance of
the Cephalopods becomes, on the contrary, very great. On the
whole, in spite of the privileges which seem to assure the first
rank to the Trilobites, in the whole of the Silurian faunas, the
Cephalopods possess exclusively certain advantages, W ich
assured their domination during the continuance of the second
and third faunas. The total number of Silurian species enume-
tated in the “Thesaurus Siluricus,” in 1868, reached 9,030.
Adding about 800 Bohemian species, the names of which are
hot yet published, and the new species announced in Canada
and elsewhere, the sum total of forms known in the Silurian
Il. First appearance of Cephalopods.—W hat is most inexpli-
cable to us is alia eet abruptness with which the Cephalo-
hearly half the total number of types of this order, which is 20.
. as a whole, present the — forms
184 Barrande— Origin of Paleozoic Species.
by its completely contracted aperture, the more ancient form
corresponding wi e ill, we observe one
important deficiency, namely, the total absence of the more
simple forms of the order, 7. e, the Ascoceratidw. The number
of species derived from these 12 primitive types is about 166.
* * This number represents about one-third of the 478 forms
which characterize the second fauna in all Silurian coun-
tries. Thus, the order shows itself already largely developed,
in generic types and specific forms, upon the horizons where
we observe the most ancient traces of its existence. We ought
also to note the important fact that, during the first epoch, the
number of migrating species, or those common to many coun-
tries upon the grand northern zone of Europe and America,
does not constitute one-fourth of the sum total of existing
forms. There is, moreover, no form common to these northern
especially each of the great
Zones, possesses many contemporaneous t which exclusively
belong to it. But itis écially- the listribution of specific forms
which offers us one of the most remarkable examples of ocali-
zation. In fact, among more than 240 species already know?
in the whole of the Primordial fauna properly so called, the
number of those which are common to two countries geog raphi-
cally separated is very . Thus the circumstances which
seemed the most inexplicable, in the first appearance of the
Barrande— Origin of Paleozoic Species. 185
Cephalopods, were already previously manifested in the first
appearance of the Trilobites. They seem to have been even
more exaggerated in what concerns this tribe of Crustaceans.
al.
IIT. Hvolution of Cephalopods.—The evolution of Cephalo-
pods, during the continuance of the second and third Silurian
dueed b enera, in our band g’, succeeds immediately the
absolute maximum of 11 types, represented only by 86 species,
mour band g*. Th facts, well ascertained, suffice to
ec untry.
The appearances of the 26 types of this order are mainly con-
centrated in three principal epochs, which correspond to the
186 Barrande— Origin of Paleozoic Species.
beginning of’ the second fauna, the beginning of the third
fauna, and the end of the third fauna. We observe, also, that
of the third fauna we can count only 4 or 5. We do not know
ny reason to be assigned for these fluctuations. They are
particularly well marked in the basin of Bohemia, doubtless on
account of its great richness. * * About the beginning of
the third fauna, the 12 existing types show a development of
specific forms which constitute the absolute maximum 0
the Silurian, viz, about 1000 species. This is principally due
to the contribution furnished by Bohemia, viz: 746 species.
IV. Parallel between the chronological and zodlogical evolution of
Cephalopods.—Concordance between geological and zodlogical
evolution should be plainly shown, if the more simple forms of
zodlogical evolution had appeared first, and if, on the other
hand, the more vaicgitiodaad forms had appeared Jast, in the
series of Silurian epochs. Now, observations of facts shows us that
precisely the contrary has occurred. In fact, according to exist-
ing documents, the more simple forms, viz: the Ascoceratide,
appeared only toward the end of the second fauna in Canada,
other hand, the more comple rms, suc Nautilus and
Trechoceras, are manifested from the beginning of the secon
fauna, in Ameri These facts suffice to show us the
and the chronological evolution of Silurian Cephalo
But we have also noted, in the course of our studies, other
facts, which confirm this discordance, and which are inexplicable _
by the transformation theory. The principal ones are as follows :
regions, about the beginnin i
accord with the idea of their slow and successive derivation
hemia, within a very narrow horizontal area, and the
Barrande— Origin of Paleozoic Species. 187
vertical thickness of a few calcareous layers of our formation
E. These distinct forms reach the number of 746, representing
the proportion of 0°46, 7. e., nearly half, of the 1622 species of
Cephalopods to-day known in the Silurian world. 3. If the
Song study, there has arisen no new type, either cosmopolite or
ocal, during all the continuance of the Devonian, Carboniferous
and Permian faunas. * * Still, as a whole, these faunas present
4 number of species of Cephalopods at least as considerable as
that of the second Silurian fauna, during which there appeared
17 generic types. In this case, neither time, nor space, nor the
— of specific forms, failed to favor the production of some
ew ty e,
tt ie ahen the very power of variation or transformation
that has itself been wanting. If this pretended force really
48 a continuous action, and one inherent to the nature of
characters, from the Silurian period, without producing a single
“arg and distinct type, in spite of the number of their
ific forms, in every country and i
faunas, If the type of Cephalopods * * had been gradually
constituted by transformations, up to their normal form, the
be
s, whose
examples showing the exact form which we, find.
transition forms are nowhere found in Silurian countries.
188 Barrande— Origin of Paleozoic Species.
the contrary, wherever we observe the first appearance of a
type, the conformation of the shell offers to us all the characters
which distinguish it from other types of this order. No coun-
try seems to us to have been more favorable than Bohemia for
the preservation of transition forms between the 20 types which
it ee: for many of them are represented by myriads of
individuals, among which we do not discover any intermediate
form. Of certain species, * * we have been able to collect
the of econ van intermediate forms between the types invari-
i
ocerata noted in our studies upon the evolution of the
Cephalopods, as offering ideally an intermediate type between
Barrande—Origin of Paleozove Species. 189
immigration of foreign species] are entirely new, and represent
the effect of gradual renewal. These three sources united have
furnished only about 84 per cent. of the species of Cephalopods
in any fauna whatever. * * There remain, then, about 66 per
It remains for us to call the attention of our scientific readers
to the harmony which exists between the results of this study
pon the ual renewal of species and the results of the
parallel established above between the zodlogical and the chron-
Slogical evolution of Cephalopods. In considering the chron-
3 ypes, parallel has
brought us to recognize that the generic and specific forms
= the Silurian Cephalopods cannot be regarded as gradually
ved
More simple to the more compli
the successive evolution of the Cephalo, cannot be attri-
190 Barrande— Origin of Paleozoic Species.
buted to a power of variation inherent in their nature and only
controlled by the influence of the surrounding medium. Ac-
the Silurian countries. This conclusion, immediately deduced
the whole of the facts observed in the Silurian world,
confirms, in a manifest manner, our preceding conclusion,
derived from the parallel between the zodlogical and the chron-
ological evolution of Cephalopods. Both contribute equally
to show us how far teachings founded upon positive facts deter-
mined by science are in discordance with the spontaneous
intuitions of any theories whatever.
r. Barrande enumerates in his list of Silurian Cephalopods
25 genera and 1622 species.
ary.
“Upon one of the earlier pages of this volume, we have
recalled the fact that direct observation has marvelously con-
J
lete discord with the observed facts of paleontology. These
iscordances are so numerous and so well marked, that the
composition of the real fauna would seem to have been caleu-
lated for the express purpose of contradicting all that. the
theories teach us ing the first appearance and the prim
tive evolution of the forms of animal life upon the globe. | So,
the paleontological theories are completely invalidated by reality,
whose test they cannot sustain. It is still to be ascertain
whether the demonstrated discordances ought to be imputed
solely to the essential principle of the theories of descent and
A. A. Hayes—Red Oxide of Zine of New Jersey. 191
transformation, or whether they are derived, to some extent,
from their point of departure in paleontology, «7 ¢., from the
supposed animal nature of Hozoon. is is a question whose
solutions we leave to those whom it concerns. For our own
part, we persist in thinking that science ought to keep strictly
within the sphere of observed facts, and remain completely
Independent of every theory which may tend to lead it into
the sphere of imagination.”
Arr. XXVI—On the Red Oxide of Zine of New Jersey; by
Aug. A. Hayss, A.A.S.
Tats mineral, discovered and analysed by the late Dr. Bruce
of New York, was subsequently examined by M. Berthier.
In his “'Traité des Essais par la voie Séche,” 1834, are his
tesults, in which no allusion to the cause of the rich red color
°F this mineral is made, but the remark, “le manganése y est
probablement a l'état de deutoxide,” closes the description.
n the year 1845 I made some analyses of this beautiful min-
tal for my late friend, Mr. Frank Alger, who was then com-
adopted by Mr. Alger, and expressed in his published work,
and subse uently Prof. Dana quoted the analysis and opinion
in his standard work on Mineralogy. In the years, since passed,
the subject has been several times discussed by scientific friends ;
‘nd when doubts of the sufficiency of the cause have been ex-
Pressed, a resort to ocular proofs at the moment has been deemed
®onvincing and satisfactory. tee
Jn turning to the description of this mineral in the 5th
Edition of the admirable system of Mineralogy by Prof. Dana,
T was surprised by the statement that the tinguished and
‘ccurate author had found, by “means of a high magnifying
3 Wer, that this ore is free from foreign scales of red oxide
iron.”
Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger had kindly sent me a large cabinet
‘pecimen of a finely colored mass of this mineral engaged in
- At some points of junction the red oxide seemed to
192 <A. A, Hayes—Red Oxide of Zine of New Jersey.
have stained the white calcite, as a coloring matter would have
done. This,—with various specimens of my own, including
part of the most distinctly crystallized form yet found, and
ranging in color from deep red garnet to reddish-orange—were
selected as the subjects enabling me to criticise my early results,
with the light afforded by improved methods of research. To
those who turn over these pages, it may sum a trivial matter
whether the color of this mineral be due to “red oxide of man-
ganese” or another kind of matter, so long as a body foreign
to the basis oxide of zinc is present. I do not accept this con-
clusion. .
h
The color of the amethyst is due to little flaws and cavities
filled with a highly refracting coloring matter. This fact
has been known for about a century. In a quartz crystal
examined a part of the length was colorless; then a section of
amethyst was followed by colorless quartz—the summit of the
was amethyst—and no preceptible disturbance of the
rocess could be detected.
A. A. Hayes—Red Oxide of Zine of New Jersey. 198
ri
Then when placed between the eye and some source of light.
he rays of light enter the mass, and absorption of part takes
i q reflect Entire
~ lower power is best; and when both reflected and transmitted
aylight illuminates the assay, we observe that a splinter of
the mineral transmits an olive-green or brownish-yellow light,
“very in slant rays’ At about 20° inclination a splinter in
partly reflected light becomes crossed by lines of a dark color.
Artificial light makes the assay more yellow ; a nice adjustment
of the incident ray allows a red reflection from the lines, now
ome surfaces of reflection. Ifthe assay be cubical, the rays
transmitted through the lamina are arrested and dispersed,
“aig The scales generally lie parallel with the laminz of
- assay, so that the passing rays are transmitted or slightly
sturbed, and the red color of the mineral is replaced by that
Color, which the scales transmit in a colorless medium. If a
*oncentrated fluid sulphate of the ore be observed, the naked
*ye takes in the same tint. :
le tendency of fracture is in the direction of the lamine,
and in pre aring the assays the better way is to crush the
Mineral between steel surfaces to the diameter of pin wire, and
+ ect the more opaque grains. These show the scales as dis-
unetly as the bars of a window are seen.
AM. Jour, Scr, —Turrp Serres, Vor. 1V, No. 21 —Sspr., 1872.
13
194 <A. A Hayes—Red Oxide of Zinc of New Jersey.
Fragments of larger size may be covered with acetic hy-
drate (No. 8of the shops). The assay dissolves as quietly as
would sugar, and the line of contact of assay with acid never
shows a dilution of color. Points of scales, having right-lined
forms, appear, and can be moved so as to transmit or reflect
and hence it acts most rapidly on the more basic elements 0
the ore, and in so doing allows the foreign bodies only slightly
altered to come in view. rom the scales, little clouds arise
and float away, often carrying the specular iron scales, ap
decomposing light. In this way, beautiful hues accompany the
chemical and mechanical actions, and the latter show the con-
stitution and compound nature of these scales.
Sulphuric hydrate, so diluted as to form the brilliant trans-
parent rhombic prisms of zinc-sulphate, in acting on the assay
in a saturated solution, transfers the scales in the assay to the
colorless crystals forming. e get the scales of specular iron
arranged in the axes of the prisms of little crystals; but the
charms of color, luster and action on light are so far lost, that
the ordinary exhibition of translucent scales engaged in a trans-
parent medium alone is given.
lustrous mineral, decomposed by the feeblest acids, become
evident. That the color of this ore is not produced by sh
inhering coloring matter, but results from the action of intrud-
trustworthy in proving the absence of any oxide of manganes®
higher than protoxid
e.
Composition. Retaining the numbers obtained in 1845, after
A. A. Hayes— Red Oxide of Zine of New Jersey. 195
meme proteride 22 ra ee 93°48
PARANCHS PPOWMGS SSS. SU ee at 5°50
Seales of specular iron __.____- O44
Ferric deutoxide ___.__- -. 0°36
OBE: st ana dee Gee des Rass 0°22
The loss is excessive, and was then supposed to arise from
body undetermined. Resort to the more precise mode of in-
dependent separation did not diminish this loss, and samples
Teserved have enabled me to account for it in part, and add
silica, calcium oxide and another metal to the number of those
before known to be present. In resuming this subject, the ore
bodies which can be detected without the aid of the spectroscope.
The red samples of this ore may be considered as a mixture of
Pure anhydrous zinc and manganous oxides in ninety-nine
parts, and foreign intrusive bodies one part in one hundred
Parts, and in some cases the latter do not form half this weight ;
tnaking the one hundredth part scales of specular iron, ferric
deutoxide, silica, molybdous oxide, calcic oxide and HO, which
ave been determined.
The absence of the higher oxides of manganese was proved
by the fact that the clean mineral of more than four pounds
1 pPears, and hence doubtless the supposition of its occurrence
aS arisen.
If we sus f ared ore in diluted sul-
: pend large fragments of prep f
Phuric hydrate sodeetned in a tall jar, the descending stria of
the Solution forming contain scales of specular iron, from which
the brilliant investing matter has been dissolved. Removing
and drying the fragments, after partial solution, the saline
* o . .
n the io! chlorhydrie acid was going on, it was observed
— chlorine ad Saapharcuneish was ‘eaite for weeks in the stronger solutions
(SN this acid with
196 A. A. Hayes—Red Oxide of Zinc of New Jersey.
_ three days the rolls were removed, soaked in successive por-
tions of water, and opened. The inner surface of the roll was
covered with a lustrous film, composed of transparent scaly
particles of a general light brown color, highly reflective an
in part transparent. The siliceous skeleton and partly decom-
oa mineral connected with the iron scales was thus obtained.
en the solutions from the rolls had reposed for eight days,
oe and nacreous scales
process has also been tried, and even the beautiful sai neatly
erystallizing double zinc and manganous and ammonium su!
phate retained portions of the mineral, after graduated erystalli-
zation. The best and most instructive mode of action adopted
is the following :
Both ammonium chloride and hydrate dissolve the ore, and 12
the air the manganous deutoxide forms and separates. Rui
pass hydrogen gas though a solution of the ore, from which
scales of specular iron and silica have been separated, contain
in a two-tubulated flask, ammonia chloride and hydrate in eX
cess being added, the oxides first precipitated dissolve. After
ose, the clear solution may be removed by pressure of the
gas, leaving a mere flock of ferric deutoxide. If silica is present
it dissolves in the zine solution with the other bodies, and 1%
may be stated here that the substances sought for are so small
a part of the whole weight that, in presence of the mass of zine
oxide, re-agents generally fail in separating them. By plactag
A. A. Hayes—Red Oxide of Zine of New Jersey. 197
fragments of ore of one-third of an inch cube in cambrie cellu-
lose as above stated, and using as a solvent the ammonia chloride
and hydrate solution in the jars, the ore dissolves freely, while
the surface of the solution, and later the outer folds of the rolls
ome covered with the manganic deutoxide, formed from
om protoxide as it is withdrawn from the protoxide solution
Manganese existing in the ore; but it also removes both zine
ac Manganous oxides from the mineral. As oxygen cannot
penetrate the folds through a manganous solution, after the
action has ceased we have left on the inner fold the intrusive
muneral, brilliant, satin-like in luster, and in the most perfect
State it has presented. It has, however, been partially decom-
Posed, and is a skeleton or silhouette of the original, greatly
expanded, excepting just where it is engaged in undissolved
Portions of the fragments.
us obtained, its general hue is brown, by reflected light,
*y We see it by the microscope in the mineral ; but its micaceous
films transmit white and yellowish rays, excepting when engag-
ing scales of specular iron; then reddish-brown to orange-red
Tays are transmitted, and the reflections become lustrous in a
high de. ree, *
The production of color by this intrusive mineral, which
may be considered as a silicate of zine, calcium and ferric deut-
oxide, seems to depend on its mica-like structure and com-
Foo composition, including the specular iron scales. We
Pile Seen that the ore loses its red color when a ray of light is
mnsmitted, or only the brown color of these scales comes in
“ew, and where partial absorption succeeds red color results.
-
The experiments demonstrating its constant presence in the
&
wa
4
Ss,
E
=
fe]
~
ba
3
e)
St.
3
5
iv 3
ih
S
=
:
OR
=
a
ss in close textures rests. Even when we use nearly pure cel-
wose Paper-filters of finest texture, and many folds, the mineral
ae and we reach that state of division, where mor e
f d colors, or the mystic boundary separating solution proper
tom pension. ‘The apparent staining of the calcite by the
ed to is here explained, and the necessity for the exist-
nly a small part of this was color-producing material.
* It is not, id peacock hues of the an-
ia perhaps, generally known that the splendid pe —
light ‘6 coal of ienaytradiic in the upper layers, are due to the decomposition
* by the films of calcite, formed from calcium crenate as in Newtonian rings.
198 A. WM Mayer—Remarks on Dr. R. Radau’s paper.
Although multiplied trials have failed in separating the intru-
sive mineral, in a pure state, we have the evidence of its extra-
ordinary power of action on light, in its partially decomposed
condition, and in some trials we can see it naturally engaged in
the mass, and coloring it, while its appearance at the surface
under chemical action removes all doubt of its being the cause
of color. It was deemed important that the feature of suffici-
ency of this cause of color should be supported by analogy,
and I have sought in several directions for facts of this kind.
1 submit one of these. :
The mineral carnallite presents in some specimens a full rich
red color. By fracturing and selection samples were made
ments of Prof. G. Rose were published in this country.
In numerous trials no feature favoring the presence of other
causes of color has been observed, and this ore must take 1ts
place with other minerals whose colors are due to foreign miD-
erals crystallizing with or intruding into them.
The detection of molybdenum in this ore is easily effected by
evaporating a neutral chlorhydric solution to a syrupy COD
sistence on a hasp formed of zine and platinum. The platinum
becomes black and covered with a coating, which dissolves
potassium bisulphate, or phosphoric hydrate as altered by heat,
in a state fitted for testing.
Brookline, Mass., 10th July, 1872.
Art. XX VIL—Remarks on Dr. R. Radau’s paper in Dr. Carl's
“ Repertorium” (vol. viii., no. 1), entitled “ Remarks on_ the vv
fluence of a motion of Translation of a Sounding Body
the Pitch of the Sound ;” by AurreD M. Mayer, Ph.D.
In the last number of Carl's Repertorium, Dr. R. Radan, of
Paris, writes an article, bearing the above heading, of which
the following is the opening paragraph : see
“The simplest means of showing the influence of a motion ©
the source of sound on the apparent pitch, an effect first sué
pected by Doppler, is, perhaps, the application of two tuning
A. M. Mayer—Remarks on Dr. R. Radau’s paper. 199
forks of almost equal pitch. This is already mentioned in
KGnig’s Catalogue of Acoustic Apparatus, 1865; also in Pisko’s
Latest Acoustical Apparatus, page 224; and in my Popular
Acoustics (page 298 of the German edition), as also in other
Places. Still one Mr. A. M. Mayer has communicated the
same method to the Paris Academy of Sciences, 11th March,
as something altogether new. The only difference is this: that
Kénig counts the beats which are gained or lost to the ear by
2 motion of the tuning fork, whereby the change of pitch 1s
measured, while Mr. Mayer, an American, only shows by a
little cork ball, resting against the stationary fork, whether it
vibrates or not with the moving one.”
8 Dr. Radau does not give Kénig’s experiments and mine,
80 that they may be compared, but quickly disposes of us both
to hurry to tell of his own, I deem it but just to Kénig and to
myself that our experiments should be set forth in our own
words, so that a just inference may be drawn from their com-
parison, while, at the same time, they will serve one to form a
Proper estimate of M. Radau’s claim to experiments sub-
tly explained in his paper. :
tom Kénig’s Catalogue des Appareils d’Acoustique, Paris,
1865, p. 16: “73. Deux diapasons wt,, montés sur leurs caisses
© résonnances et accordés pour donner exactement quatre
battements par seconde. 5
On pent varier Yexpérience de plusieurs maniéres. Voici la
plus simple, ‘
. n met les deux diapasons l'un a cété de l'autre, a uelque
distance de loreille ; puis, ayant constaté d’abord qu’ils donnent —
bien les quatre battements par seconde, on rapproche le plus
stave des deux de l’oreille, d’environ 60 centimetres, tout en
fontinuant de compter les battements. L/oreille regoit alors de
cé diapason une vibration double de plus, pendant le temps
employé a Je déplacer, et l'on constate alors la perte d’un batte-
vent dans le méme temps. Si e’est le plus aigu des deux
ara que l’on rapproche de Voreille, on obtient un batte-
ent de plus.
Si on dent l'un des diapasons 4 la main, les yeux fixés sur
ve sans
in pendule qui bat les secondes, on arriy peine a lui
Onher un mouvement de va-et-vient, tel qu'on entende toujours
ternativement trois et cinq battements seconde. J'ai
‘niin fait 'expérience en mettant les deux diapasons 4 une cer-
laine distance Yun de Vautre, et en promenant entre eux,
“it Poreille elle-méme, soit ce qui est de beaucoup préférable,
un résonnateur ut, mis en communication avec l’oreille par un
. tube en caoutchoue. :
. Je ferai encore observer qu’on arrive, par le méme orocéde,
. déterminer approximativement la longueur d’onde d'un son
&t sa hauteur,’
200 A. M. Mayer—Remarks on Dr. R. Radau’s paper.
From the Comptes Rendus, 11 Mars, 1872: ‘ Hxpériences
acoustigues tendant a démontrer que la translation dun ce
vibration donne lieu a une onde d'une longueur différente de celle
que produit le méme corps vibrant dans une position fixe. Note
de M. A. M. Mayer, présentée par M. Delaunay.
L’APPAREIL.
“‘ Aprés m’étre procuré quatre diapasons a fourchette appuyés
sur des caisses résonnantes et donnant la note wf=256 vib-
rations complétes par seconde, je les ai designés par les nos.
, 2, 3,4. J’ai mis 4 l’unisson parfait les nos, 1 et 2 d’aprés un
rocédé que j’indiquerai plus tard. No. 1 fut placé devant une
anterne magique; une petite balle de bon liége (6 millimétres
de diamétre), suspendue par un filament de soie, affleurait une
de ses branches; l'image du diapason et de la balle de liége fut
eee sur un écran. No. 3 avait l'extrémité d’une de ses
ranches chargée de cire, de maniére 4 donner deux battements
par seconde avec no. 1 ou no. 2
No, 4 avait les extrémités de ses branches limées et donnait
aussi deux battements par seconde avec no. 1 ou no, 2; ainst
no. 4 faisait deux vibrations par seconde de plus que no. I,
tandis que no. 8 faisait deux vibrations par seconde de moins
que no. lL.
LES EXPERIENCES.
“Dans les expériences 1 4 7 inclusivement, le diapason no. 1
reste devant la lanterne, la balle de liége affleurant une de ses
ranches.
Exp. 1.—Diapason no. 2, attaché A sa caisse et tenu a la
main, est mis en vibration 4 une distance de 30 et 60 pieds du
no. 1; la balle est écartée de la branche du diapason no. 1 qui
vibre a l’unisson avec no. 2.
Pp. 2.—Je me suis placé A une distance de 30 pieds du
no. 1, tenant le diapason no, 2 détaché dans une main et sa
devenu uniforme, je oe le diapason sur sa caisse, et l6tai
ien que je n’aie été éloigné du diapason
jusqu’au moment oi je m’arrétai; mais 4 ce moment méme
mon assistant, qui tenait l’oreille prés de la caisse tandis qu'il
observait l’écran, entendit vibrer le diapason no. 1 et vit sautet
la balle de liége.
A, M. Mayer—Remarks on Dr. R. Radau's paper. 201
Exp. 4 et 5.—Je me suis éloigné du diapason no. 1 au lieu
de m’en approcher. le résultat a été le méme que dans les
exp. 2 et 3.
Exp. 6.—J’ai fait vibrer, comme dans ee 1, le diapason
ho. 8, qui faisait 254 vibrations par seconde. la balle ne
bougea point. Alors jai détaché le diapason de sa caisse, et,
me mettant & une distance de 80 pieds du diapason no. 1, j’ai
balancé la caisse dans la main vers no. 1, mettant no. 3 dessus
quand elle approchait no. 1 avee la vitesse couvenable (8—9
Pieds par seconde). La balle fut subitement rejetée de no. 1.
Sion ralentit ou accélére considérablement le mouvement de
a
XP.
athe de plus que no. 1, fut substitué a celui employé dans
Séloignait de no. 1. Le résu
Peameements effectués dans la vitesse fut le méme que dans
exp. 6.
EXP. 8.—J’ai placé le diapason no. 8 devant la lanterne et
balaneé le no. 1 comme dans aa 7, avec le méme résultat.
Exp. 9,—J’ai placé le diapason no. 4 devant la lanterne
Silanes Jono: commie: dann Vexp. 6. Le résultat fut le
meme que dans l’exp. 6.”
It is thus seen that K@nig’s method is founded on the pheno-
mages of the fork arid cork-ball are Gale in greatly mag-
tied proportions on a screen, they have been witnessed, with
£ntire satisfaction, by an audience of nearly one thousand _per-
“ons. In other words, Kénig’s are, we may say, subjective
in their character, and the alteration of wave-length is interred
™ the change in the frequency of the beats; while mine are
*minently objective, and are directly intelligible from the visible
mechanical actions produced by the forks. ay :
It may be asked, why did I not mention Mr. Kénig’s beauti-
ful experiments as a proper preface to my own? Before pub-
lishing my results, [ examined into the literature of the sub-
Ject as far as the journals and transactions of societies allowed,
and I found nothing that interfered with my claim to the use
of the forks, as well as the above application of the principle
of the communication of vibrations, and the exhibition of the
Same to a large audience by means of the lantern. It was only
after my communication to the Paris Academy had been Yaa
lished, ‘that my friend Professor Rood, of Columbia College,
Owed me in Kénig’s catalogue the account of his experi-
202 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
ments, as above quoted. Had I sooner met with them I would
have prefaced my paper with a minute account of his work.
it is, 1 doa now can, and here publicly render to M.
Konig the amende honorable.
Let us now proceed to examine another paragraph of Dr.
Radau’s paper, after having perused the account of my experi-
ments from No. 2 to No. 9 inclusive, M. Radau says, “ If the
forks are mounted on resonators, the change of pitch can also be
observed by imparted vibrations. One fork is left upon a table;
the other, tuned wnisono, is strongly vibrated and approached
to or moved from the other. If the second fork is in contact
res paragraph, so complacently to appropriate my work.
Thus one M. Radau, a Frenchman, treats the ‘one Mr. A. M.
Mayer, an American.”
July 5th, 1872.
Art. XXVIII.—Preliminary Description of New Tertiary
Mammals; by O. C. Marsa. Part IL
_ THE present communication is a continuation of the article
in the preceding number of the Journal (p. 122), in which were
described some of the new mammalian remains discovered by
Limnofelis ferox, gen. et sp. nov.
: A gigantic carnivore, nearly as large as a lion, is npn
in our collections by portions of a skull, a fragment of a lower
jaw containing the sectorial molar, and by some vertebre and
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammais. 208
ront. The zygomatic process of the squamosal is proportion-
ally more massive than in the lion, although similar in form.
Measurements.
rena 5 SR eer ee
This interesting specimen was found, in September last, by
Mr. J. F. Page, of the Yale party, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
The geological horizon was Eocene, or Lower Miocene.
Limnofelis latedens, sp. nov.
A second very large carnivore, but inferior to the preceding
'N size, is indicated by a last upper premolar, and probably by
some other fragmentary remains. This premolar is unusuall
2road, and is remarkable for its large posterior tubercle, whic
‘Ss two-thirds the size of the main cusp. The anterior tubercle
= very small. On the outer face there is a well-marked basal
tidge! ‘The crown is 165" in longitudinal diameter, 11" in
transverse diameter, and 15™ in height. Another specimen,
“pparently of this species, is the left lower jaw of a young in-
dividual. It contains the canine, and three molars, the last of
_ Which is still nearly enclosed in the jaw. The space occupied
Y the three molars is 46™™.
€ only known remains of the species were discovered by
Mr. G. M. Keasbey and the writer, last autumn, in the Tertiary
beds of Grizzly Buttes, near Fort Bridger, Wyoming.
Limnocyon riparius, sp. nov.
physis is elongated, and the rami were but slightly codéssified,
here were six teeth behind the canine, all close together and
each with two fan he last two
canine was large, and near the symphysis.
204 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
Measurements.
Space occupied by lower premolars and molars, .........- 47598
Space occupied by last three molars, .........6--eeeeeee 26°
Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate lower molar,..... 9
SPADA VOTES SAIIOROT eg «pene Fake ea os «4s el ches’
Depth of jaw below this molar, ............... 4 i hain 125
The specimens on which this description is based were found,
in August last, by Mr. O. Harger, at the same locality as the
preceding species.
Limnocyon agilis, sp. nov.
A still smaller species, apparently of the same genus, is well
represented by the greater portion of a skull with teeth, and
the more important parts of the skeleton of the same individ-
ual. In the lower jaws, the premolars are separated from
each other and from the canine, and the first premolar has but
a single fang. The first upper premolar is separated nearly its
own longitudinal diameter from the canine. The penultimate
upper molar has its elevated pair of cusps more closely united
than in the last species. The present animal had a long tail,
and claws resembling those of a fox.
Measurements.
Space occupied by three lower premolars, .........+-+++ 27°6"
epth of jaw below third lower premolar,..........-+.+
The above remains were found by the writer, in September
last, in the Tertiary shale of Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming.
Thinocyon velox, gen. et sp. NOV.
A small carnivore, about as large as a cat, is represented hy
somewhat resembles in its proportions that of Zymnocyon, but
it is more elongated, and the symphysis is more nearly horizon-
tal. The angle of the lower jaw is inflected, thus ge in-
dicating the marsupial affinities of the species. The condyle,
also, was evidently but little elevated. e number of teeth in
each lower jaw was nine, divided as follows: Incisors 2, canine
1, premolars and molars 6. The incisors are small and com-
ressed. The canine is large, and nearly round at the base.
e last two molars are tubercular; and the four anterior teeth
compressed, and each has two fangs.
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 205
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of lower premolars and molars,..... 30°5 ™™-
Extent of last three teeth, .. 050.00. 0ce cect ecco e eee es 16°
Depth of jaw below last molar, ........-0++ seer ee eeees 75
Length Of #ymphysigiis 60 i ee cen tee ee eae Ve
Longitudinal diameter of canine at base,......----++++-- 3°75
Space occupied by two left incisors, .....-++ ++++++++ 2°
The specimen on which the.present description is based was
found, in September last, by the writer, during the explorations
of the Yale party in Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming.
Viverravus (?) nitidus, sp. nov.
_ A diminutive mammal, about the size of a weasel, is clearly
indicated by a perfect penultimate lower molar, which agrees so
nearly with the corresponding tooth of Viverravus graciles Marsh,
that the species it represents may for the present be referred to
that genus. Other remains in our collections probably pertain
to the same species. The crown of this molar is composed of a
posterior tubercle, which has its summit near the outer side;
hext a pair of elevated, pointed cusps, of equal size, the exterior
being slightly in advance of the other; and in front a small,
slightly bifid tubercle.
Measurements.
antero-posterior diameter of penultimate lower molar,....- Fits
ransverse diameter in front, ......-.eeee cere ere erneeeee 15
_— diameter behind,......-.-+-. sees rere eeee es oo
eight above jaw of central tubercles,.....+++-++++eer++> 3
The above specimen was discovered last autumn, by G. G.
Lobdell, J r., in the Tertiary shale near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
Thinolestes anceps, gen. et sp. DOV.
affinities, but their carnivorous characters appear unmistakable.
apparently had the angle of the lower jaws inflected, and
therium, and the two genera are evidently anes related. In
the complete description, the characters and affinities of this
peculiar roup, which may
disenssed
ort and stout. The
The ] j in this species are sh
ower jaws in this species oy caw or La
teeth agree in number and general form w
206 0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
therium tyrannus Marsh, and may be divided as follows: In-
cisors 2-2, canines 1-1, molar series 7-7. There are ache
sath, also, in the upper jaw behind the canine. The first pre-
molar above and below has only a single fang. The upper
molars have an alien pare of pointed cusps, and on the i inner
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of upper molar series, ...........05+ 26; ae
Eettent of three upper true molaray 6 cisiaeses ag s'ch bso 43 155
Extent of three lower true molars,..........e0seeese0es 18
Antero-posterigr diameter of last lower molar, Rr eee 6°6
Transverse iameter, ht ea ee ee ie wks Cees 5 is ks eS 4°
Depth of jaw on posterior face below last lower molar,...10°
This species is represented in the Yale Museum by the ge
important part of several skeletons, which were found, last au-
tumn, by Mr. J. F. Quigley, Mr. G. G. Lobdell, Jr., and the
writer, in the Tertiary deposits of Western Wyoming
— crassus, gen. et nov.
in the proportions of the Boe they : are very wailar The
present species was about as large as a raccoon, but the lower
jaws are much stouter, and are ankylosed at the symphysis.
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of lower molar series,.......- weukisn ee
Extent of three lower true molars, ........ s..eeeeceees 23°5
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower mae: PE a
Transverse diameter, ....<..++..+++ whan 4s oe . ky eek 5'5
Extent of last three upper mo molars, PO EBITD | 2
Transverse diameter of last upper ‘molar, Be Ye ee Ts 7'8
The specimen on which the above description is mainly based
was discovered, last September, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming,
by Mr. O. Harger, of the Yale party.
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 207
Limnotherium affine, sp. nov.
A species of Limnotherium, somewhat smaller than L. tyran-
nus Marsh, is well represented in the Yale Museum by portions
of a skull with teeth, both lower jaws, and a considerable part
of the skeleton of the same animal, The lower jaws are muc
the base than the first lower premolar. This and the following
premolar have each but one fang. The upper true molars closely
Tesemble those of Thinolestes anceps. oe
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of lower molar a. ea aaa a .
Extent of last three lower rg Naeega area ee rece gene ear 17°
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower WON ce o6 aoe big
mermrerse ditmoter,.,..25 55 sii ee 1s eos 4°
th of jaw on posterior face below last lower molar,... 9°
Antero-posterior diameter of lower canine at DeRO ews <6 2°3
€ type specimen of this species was found, last September,
at Grizzly Buttes, by Mr. J. F. Quigley, of the Yale party.
Orohippus pumilus, gen. et sp. Nov.
consist of two separate series of upper molar teeth, four
of each. They indicate a new genus of small solipeds, nearly
allied to Anchitherium, and which ossibly nee include the
1 racile. The crowns of
ner tubercles, from which ridges extend obliquely to the an-
_ letior inner margin of the outer cusps, but the anterior ridge is
divided so as to form an intermediate anterior tubercle. All
© teeth preserved have a distinct basal ridge. The species
" &S about the size of Anchitherium gracile, and appears to have
ad a long slender tail.
Measurements.
Vongitudinal extent of four upper posterior molars, ..... i ad
Taeto-posterior diameter of last upper molar,.........+. 7°
rensveree diamoter;..«s ¢ivsdcuki xs suaues eueeeds inne’ 8°
aitero-posterior diameter of penultimate upper molar,.... 7°5
‘Fansverse diameter, ....s+++++- iculb «Re CANCERS OREN ENS 8°5
"he specimens here described were found, in August last, at
Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming, by Mr. G. M. Keasbey and the writer.
Helohyus plicodon, gen. et sp. nov.
An interesting genus of small pachyderms, near!, related to
Hyracotherium, is indicated by an upper molar tooth in perfect.
208 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
Measurements.
Antero-posterior diameter of last upper molar,.........-- sas
‘ram eres cintietir, ..... os oe ec wee sen sc eee 10°2
Distance between summits of external pair of cones,...... 4
Distance between summits of anterior pair of cones,...... 53
The known remains of this species were found by Mr. H. D.
Ziegler and Mr. G. G. Lobdell, Jr., last summer, at Grizzly
Buttes, near Fort Bridger, Wyoming.
Thinotherium validum, gen. et. sp. nov.
Measurements.
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,.......-.+-- 1
nsverse diameter in front... 000. J0.decseels cu ees :
Transverse diameter through central pair of cones,.....--
Distance between summits of central cones,......-.-+-+> 31
Antero-posterior diameter of first lower true molar,.....- 8-4
Passalacodon litoralis, gen. et sp. nov.
Several small mammals, evidently insectivores, about the size
of the European hedge-hog, were among the interesting discov
O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 209
tally in the penultimate molar. The rami were apparently not
codssified, cr ;
Measurements.
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower WOIST io 55 5st ss Bee
Transverse TANCE ois cap ene cee a ee
Antero-pesterior diameter of penultimate lower molar,..... 4°8
PAYORSO HBMGLED, oc oii cus Fuss eee h cs eens 5k els 1 3:1
Depth of jaw below first lower premolar,........-...+++: 6°
This unique specimen was found, in September last, near
Henry’s Fork, by Mr. J. F. Quigley, of the Yale party.
Anisacodon elegans, gen. et sp. nov.
Another genus, nearly allied to the preceding one, may be
established on a lower jaw with teeth, which belonged to an
animal about the same size as the one last described. In the
Present specimen, the last lower molar is smaller than the pen-
ultimate. In both, the cavities between the cusps are much
More deeply excavated than in the same molars of Passalacodon,
and the small intermedial tubercles are less prominent.
Measurements.
qitero-posterior diameter of last lower molar, ..........-- tb en aa
pueverse diameter, . ... <5.) ico cours cotus ave k 160d) et 3°9
Trt Posterior diameter of penultimate lower molar,.....4°6
mer eree diameter... 0 ce ve ewe ee curls Pies vs Be
Depth of lower jaw on posterior face below last molar,....6°5
The only known specimen of this tee was found, last au-
‘umn, by the writer, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
Centetodon pulcher, gen. et sp. NOV.
tooth
fetes, although probably there is little affinity between the
two genera. The posterior part of the crown 1s formed by a
Jour. Scr.—Tairp —— Vou. IV, No. 21,—Sepremper, 1872,
210 0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
low tubercle, which is separated by a deep notch from the an-
terior elevated portion. ‘The latter is ae of three pointed
cones, the front one being the highe
Measurements.
Space occupied by last two lower molars,...........+++- a
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar, Cae ise eris 18
PR URUNVOTUR CRRIOROT, Fes vs ince es cence sib es och es eases 11
Depth of jaw below ‘last lower MROIRE 5. tc ck eee 3°5
The specimen here described was a last September, by
the writer, near Henry’s Fork, Wyomi
Part III.
Nearly all the remains briefly described in this section of the
present communication belonged to quite small animals, many
of them insectivorous, and several evidently marsupials. In
the complete description, now in course of preparation, these
various species will be fully described, and their more exact
affinities determined.
Stenacodon rarus, gen. et sp. nov.
A new Feevont of very small mammals, apparently related dis-
tantly to Hyopsodus, may be established on a single last t lower
molar, in good reservation which is one of the rarities of our
collections. The crown of the tooth is remarkably narrow. It
is composed omsaritially of four main cusps, nearly of the same
size, and a larger posterior tubercle. The main cusps are al
ranged in two transverse foe and the posterior pair are the
highest. There is no basal ridge. The species was somewhat
smaller than Hyopsodus paulus Leidy.
Measurements.
maathe siig diameter of last lower molar,.......-+++ 65™
Transverse diameter through anterior pair of cones,...--+ 2°9
Piadavors diameter through posterior tubercle,.....++++ 2°
Height of posterior pair of cones above jaw,...------ ‘wee
The above erage was found by the writer, last autumn,
near Henry’s Fork.
Antiacodon venustus, gen. et sp. nov.
This species, which is about the same size as Homacodon i
gans, is at present represented only by part of a lower jaw, wit
the characteristic lower molar, so often alone preserved. The ¢
crown of the present je has a similar composition to that 0
the same molar in Homacodon. The four principal cones stat
in nearly opposite pairs, but the posterior tubercle is less widely
O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 211
separated from the central pair of cones, and the inner anterior
cusp has its summit distinctly cleft. The crown, also, is propor-
tionally shorter longitudinally. There is a distinct basal ridge
on the front and outer sides of the crown.
Measurements.
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,........... 62 mm"
Transverse diameter through anterior pair of cones,...... 3°6
Transverse diameter through central pair of cones,....... 3°6
ed
er 4
Height of anterior inner cusp above jaw,.....-
The only known specimen of this species was found, last
September, by the writer, near Henry's Fork, Wyoming.
Bathrodon typus, gen. et sp. nov.
In this genus, the first and second lower true molars have
‘rowns with a similar composition to those of Limmnotherium,
but the anterior pair of cusps are more elevated, and the poster-
lor pair are nearly equal in size. The last lower molar is quite
different from the corresponding tooth in that genus. It is
more like the preceding molar with the addition of a posterior
tubercle, which is near the inner margin. The present species
18 based mainly on a portion of a lower jaw containing the last
three molars, They indicate an animal about as large as Lim-
notherium elegans Marsh, and one probably allied to that
Species,
Measurements.
Kongitudinal extent of last three lower molars,......... 12h
tero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,......-.-- 5°
H Srevamee CIMMiGtEr cis ash h sin nk ck one es ke Coonan. 3°5
eight of penultimate lower molar above jaw,....-..+ +: 2°6
The only known remains of this species were found by Mr.
F. Mead, Jr., at Grizzly Buttes, near ort Bridger, Wyoming,
in September last.
Bathrodon annectens, sp. nov.
m it in having the anterior half of the crown narrower than
the Posterior portion. The former is elevated, and has its inner
®usp the highest. There is no distinct basal ridge.
Measurements.
antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,.....+.--+ 53 =
Tavsverse diameter in front,.....-- SOC GE Rae 3°4
Tansverse diameter through posterior half,........-+-+ 3°5
Depth of jaw on posterior face below last lower molar,. .10°6
212 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
This unique specimen was discovered, in September of last
year, near Henry’s Fork, by Mr. F. Mead, Jr., of the Yale party.
Mesacodon speciosus, gen. et sp. nov.
This species and genus is based essentially on a nearly per-
fect lower jaw, with most of the teeth in good preservation. In
its general features, the jaw resembles that of Limnotherium, and
the molars are similar in composition to those of J. elegans,
although considerably narrower. The teeth form a continuous
series. e canine is large and compressed, and almost in con-
tact with the s earn There are three premolars, and three
true molars. The first premolar had but a single fan e
timate. e jaw is short, twisted longitudinally, and was not
covssified with its fellow. The lower border was produced
posteriorly, and the angle inflected. The remains indicate an
animal about the size of the preceding species, and probably
insectivorous.
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of six lower molars,............++: 203.
Extent of three lower true molars,..............-.- BP -
Pn ee pamgaia! of last lower PROSE, cies 5 ep ts 4°3
AYORENCTOR IAIDONOE 65 oy hak oat a ee ths 5s ech = te 3°
Depth = ou on Toner face below last lower molar,... 7°
The jaw described above was —— by the writer, ‘as Sep-
eciban = Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming.
Hemiacodon gracilis, gen. et sp. 1 :
A genus of small mammals, apparently insecivorows with
molar teeth resembling those in Mesacodon, is well re resented
by portions of several lower jaws, and possibly By other char-
e same species,
witohi somewhat smaller than that last described. ‘The
lower ‘ain preaented are rather slender and’ compressed. The
teeth form a continuous series, os the dental formula appears
to be as follows: Incisors 2, canine 1, premolars 3, and molars
3. There were a Te two ‘aeall incisors, and the ae
e jaws were not codssified at the symp trie The lower
margin was produced epee and the angle inflected.
easurements.
oe extent of nine eed MD ce cet ea 20° =
Extent of premolar and molar series,..........-.-++++-172
Extent of iemEe Sesese ook”
O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals, 213
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,........-. ica
memcaveres diameter, i.» » 46 + a x +i+ae-bo5,0 4 ¢eacme eels 2°4
Depth of jaw below last lower molar,....---++++++++++: 6°3
The type specimen of this species was discovered, last autumn,
near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming, by Mr. G. G. Lobdell, Jr.
Other specimens were found in the same region by Mr. O.
oe, Mr. J. J. DuBois, and Mr. T. G. Peck, of the Yale
party,
Hemiacodon nanus, sp. Dov.
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of last four lower teeth,....+-+-+ +++: Bg accu
Extent of three lower molars,.....-++-+-+ereeeete cree 9
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,.....-+---- 3.5
FAMSVErse Giameter, ........-00csees coer eescsee seers :
epth of jaw below first lower true molar,......-------+- 46
aj The specimen on which the above description is based was
Boovered by Mr. O. Harger, in September last, near Henry’s
ork, Wyoming.
_ Hemiacodon pucillus, sp. nov.
A still smaller species, not larger than a mole, is indicated
SY a fragment of a lower jaw containing the penultimate molar
™ good condition. The jaw was proportionally more com-
Measurements.
qitero-posterior diameter of penultimate lower molar, ...2°3 ™™°
H AnSverse diameter, ........e7ee-rttr erste aa ee ee ty
Doett above jaw of anterior tubercles,...+++-+sss8+s8t* 17
pth of jaw below this molar,....---++-++ssrtsreetctt 3°7
: This specimen, the only known remains of the species, was
ound in September, 1870, by Mr. H. B. Sargent, of the Yale
Party. The locality was at Grizzly Buttes.
214 0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
Centetodon altidens, sp. nov.
A fragment of a lower jaw in our collections contains a pen-
ultimate molar, which agrees so nearly in its main features
with the last lower molar of Centetodon pulcher, that the species
it represents may provisionally be referred to that genus,
although the species differ widely in size and other respects.
The tooth preserved is remarkable for its great height above
the jaw. e notch between the low posterior tubercle and
the elevated anterior trifid portion of the crown is not so deep
as in the small species, and more like that in the genus Cenie-
tes. There is a faint basal ridge around the crown, except on
the inner side.
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of last two lower molars,...........- 5G. .
Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate ower molar,....3°
Transverse diameter, .......+.....seeeeeceeeseeeecees 2°3
BRR ROTO TOW oe ei ie eae yh cas oo s es baw 371
Depth of jaw below penultimate molar,............++0+: 6°
This specimen was found by the writer, last autumn, near
Henry’s Fork.
Entomodon comptus, gen. et sp. nov.
Another genus of insectivores is represented by several is0-
lated teeth, one of the most characteristic of which is a last
ae! molar, in excellent preservation. This tooth is ve
rrow, and its crown is composed of a low posterior tubercle
slightly bifid; a pair of elevated central cones, the outer r bein
the highest, and slightly in advance of the other; and a sma
compressed anterior tubercle. Behind the inner central cone is
a deep —— There is no basal eS The tooth indi-
es
=]
oc
™M
Bes
S
3
vss
fom
Bp
Can
ar)
bar]
ct
=
Ba
Ma
oi
®,
|
i=}
lei}
Measurements.
1g mms
Antero-posterior saat of last lower molar,......--+-- 53 ™
Transverse diameter through central cones,.....+-++++++ 2°5
Height of outer central cone above FAW ce i ccce canes et 4°4
Height of anterior tubercle above jaw,......--+++++++++° 3°4
The type specimen of this species was found near Henry 8
Fork, last September, by Mr. G. M. Keasbey.
Entomacodon minutus, gen. et sp. nov.
A small insectivorous mammal, about as large as a mouse, is
indicated by a fragment of a lower jaw with the last molar pe™
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 215
Measurements,
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower IAL, occa 8 ek ie 72 pe
Mane ree dinvicter. .... <i. 45.4 os 1
MM Oe daw... 36s; Ak ee 9°
Depth of jaw below last lowér niolat os... 5.5 1c odes es 2°5
The specimens now representing this species were found, last
autumn, near Henry’s Fork, by Mr. O. Harger.
Centracodon delicatus, gen. et sp. nov.
Sout as large as a mole, and apparently amarsupial, ‘The jaw
1s slender, and its lower border regularly curved longitudinally.
last molar has a low, sharp, posterior tubercle, and in front a
high pointed external cusp, with two small inner tubercles.
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of seven posterior lower teeth,......12°8 ™™*
Extent of last thiee MOlara 545 6s aa ei ne oe es 6°
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,.......... =
Transverse Giniieter, 2 eas Hees Lous aoe Ciicie 12
Depth of jaw below last lower molar,............+.. coe
The above specimen was discovered, in September of last
year, near Henry's Fork, by Mr. F. Mead, Jr.
Nyetilestes serotinus, gen. et sp. Nov.
An interesting genus of very small bats is indicated by part
of a lower jaw with the last three molars perfect. On the outer
Side, these molars resemble those of Nyctitherium, but differ es-
o
Slender, and proportionally less d than in Nyetitheriwm.
) y iess aeep
The present spear vee somewhat smaller than N. velow.
216 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of last three lower molars,.......... 42
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,..........-. 1°3
“ranaverse CiMMelOn; S65. 6s ii es ak Ses CTE 1°
Depth of jaw below last lower MOURI OS Sein. oes ex «Steal 2
This specimen, the only known remains of the species, was
found by the writer, last September, at Grizzly Buttes, Wy-
oming.
Liphacodon rugatus, gen. et sp. nov.
ee new carnivore, about the size of a civet cat, is represented
our Wyoming collections by the anterior part of a be: jaw,
a probably by other less important remains. The premolars
in this specimen have their main cusps peculiarly anaes and
effective. Their anterior and posterior tubercles, yee are
pointed, and placed near the base of the crown. The first pre-
molar is large, and near the canine. The latter was of medium
size, and inserted in the jaw more nearly vertically than in most
carnivores. The adjoining incisor was large. ‘The premolars
ave the enamel of the crown coarsely wrinkled.
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent i oe and five next lower teeth,..30° "™
Extent of fount prempliras 0s he. ees ak ee 19°2
Antero-posterior didineier of third premolar,..........-- 6
‘PRADBVONNO GiMNOLGR 965 i 5 es ce i VE 3°
Depth of jaw below "fourth prétiolar, 5 600050) ie Hs 8°5
The type specimen of this species was found by Mr. J. J.
DuBois. The locality was near Henry's s Fork.
Harpalodon i ie eh gen. et sp. nov.
molar. On the fourt
The premolars preserved are neti i eompresed, - have the
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of last two premolars and first dee é
mms
Antero-posterior diameter of first true molar,...-....-+- 5°3
Antero-posterior diameter of last premolar,..... ....--> 5'8
Transverse rie diaz en te as ee ie 3
Height above jaw,....... Peder ee ies ai, ea ee 4°6
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 217
The ah Bi sags. was found by Mr. O. Harger, near
_ Henry's Fo
an vulpinus, sp. NOV.
ing, may be base t of a lower jaw containing the last
premolar. ae sthies Toil specimens probably belong to
the same spec The premolar has the Stor tuberele pro-
Measurements.
Space oeeupied by four lower premolars,.........+-++++> oa
Snes a diameter of last premolar, ee ee 7
Transverse di OEOH is ven es peak penn ween ee od 2°3
Height aioe: OUR W is in Ca oo eh eke ee eee 43
Depth of j jaw below ldat preingtar ois oa Sh ecee ss 8°
The known remains of this species were found a Me. T. G.
Peck, in September last, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming
Orotherium Uintanum, gen. et sp. nov.
This genus is near ly allied, apparently, to Lophiotherium, but
differs from the known remains of that genus in having, on the
second ate remolar, a prominent posterior tubercle. In the
true lower molars, also, the anterior inner cone is slightly bifid,
@ character not indicated in the figures given of the correspond-
ing teeth of Lophiotherium. The present species is based on a
nearly entire lower jaw, with the last six teeth in perfect pre-
servation. The first true lower molar is very similar to the
fourth premolar, ages . Hise broader anteriorly. The second
Premolar is narrow, with the anterior cusp compressed and sep-
arated from the ee tubercle by a wide notch. The lower
teeth resemble those of Lophiotherium Se seo Leidy, as well
4s those of the smaller species, L. Ballard’ Marsh, and both
me ne senna doubtless be placed in the genus Orotherium.
elations ne this genus to Orehippus cannot at present be
ily determine
Measurements.
Lon ngitudinal extent of last six lower teeth,...........++- 47) 9
Extent of last three lower molars,.......-+2++++0+ Ree & 3
Tateto-posterior diameter of last ‘lower MOIGL,» oss oben ue 11°5
Wiaverie distaste; ccc. acs occ os fv tonnes oe 5°
Antero-posterior diameter of fourth lower premolar, cevinde s
MSVerse diameter, .....ssc-seccre sees ceerreees seeed
This specimen was found near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming, by
the writer, in September last.
218 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
Helaletes boops, gen. et sp. nov.
Among the Tapiroid mammals in the Green River Tertiary
deposits, there are two distinct genera which have been referred
to Lophiodon. Dr. Leidy has given the name Hyrachyus to one
of these, which embraces the larger species, and the other may
be called Helaletes. In this genus the last lower molar has a
third, posterior lobe. The upper molars resemble those of Lo-
phiodon. The astragalus differs widely from the Tapiroid type,
and in its narrow oblique condyles is very similar to that of the
Equide. Other characters of the genus will be given in the
full description.
The present species is based upon the greater portion of a skull
with teeth, and the more important parts of the skeleton of the
same individual. The teeth agree in size with those of Lophio-
don nanus Marsh, but the last upper molar has a small tubercle
on the outer margin between the cusps, which appears to be
wanting in the type specimen of the latter species. There are
also other differences of importance. Both species doubtless
belong to the same genus.
Measurements.
Longitudinal extent of last three lower molars,.......--- 33°57,
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,.......- itnlkae
Depth of jaw below last lower molar,............2.0+¢0% 4
Antero-posterior diameter of last upper molar,........--- 111
SYRUOVETHO: TIMINOLOE FS re ee OA ek 11°5
deny tls OF MERRINE eee Glatvieae ere
Width between condylar ridges,....... Seca eens avs nee) 2%
The type specimen of this species was discovered, last au-
tumn, at Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming, by Mr. G. G. Lobdell, Jr.
Part IV.
Paramys robustus, sp. nov.
A new rodent, with lower molar teeth similar to those :
Paramys, but a much larger animal than the known i sige
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,......-- ee sor
Weansverse Ginmiewee, 6s ci os oe ca eae ee eseee® Oe
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 219
nim.
Transverse diameter of UMOIROT oss week che cee ee 4°
The specimens above described were found by Mr. G. G.
Lobdell, Jr., and Mr. G. M. easbey, in the lower Tertiary de-
posits of Grizzly Buttes and Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
Tillomys senex, gen. et sp. Nov.
A small rodent, about the size of a rat, is represented in our
Wyoming collections by a fragment of a lower jaw with the
second molar in place, and apparently by some other uncharac-
teristic remains. The crown of this molar is somewhat worn,
Measurements.
Space occupied by four lower molars,.....-..+++++ee+ee+ ery
Antero-posterior diameter of second lower molar,........ 2°
ET OrOO CRM Ot tdi end si dagen intmee seen canes 1°8
Depth of jaw below second WIDMER oud conc. Sxeen cee 5°
The known remains of this species were found, in September
last, by the writer, near Henry’s Fork.
Tillomys parvus, sp. nov.
of the last lower molar, The species was but little larger than
& mouse,
Measurements.
Kength of lower molar seTrieS,.. «+0. se+ esse ceeserscvese vs
tero-posterior diameter of second lower molar,........ s
Transverse diametar, .. .ossa0ssescnenpeerh ieee?
Pace between incisor and first lower molar,.....-......-3"
This specimen was found by Mr. O. Harger, at Grizzly Buttes,
Wy oming, in September last.
Taxymys lucaris, gen. et sp. Nov.
The existence of another small rodent, evidently belonging to
the Sciuridee, is clearly proved by a fragment of an upper jaw,
220 0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
which start from the outer side, and meet in a prominent inner
and slightly bifid tubercle. There are two low ridges outside
of the main pair, which meet in the same tubercle.
Measurements.
Space occupied by first two upper molars,............+++ pen
saree coetergs Auge of second aise molar,...+.-.--- i
BR EUS NOD, os care eae ce oc sy ected ssaeese 2°
Transverse diaiieeer’ of first upper molar,...........-.-- 1
The above remains were DS last autumn, by the writer,
near Henry’s Fork, Wyomi
Scevuravus cee sp. nov.
penultimate gle: and several isolated teeth. These remains
indicate an animal about half the bulk of Seduravus undans
Marsh. The lower incisor is more convex in front than in that
species. The jaw is short and deep, and the masseteric fossa
ends in front under the second molar. The wedge penultimate
molar has three fangs, and the last one had four
Measuremenis. i
Space occupied by three posterior lower molars,.......-- ee gace
Antero-posterior diameter of third lower molar,.......-++ 2°
Altansverse diameter... 6.402 5 a 1°9
epth of jaw below second lower ee Meee ee arg at 53
Transverse diameter of lower in NOMWOE) eas va sok eae eee 1°2
The remains at resent BS Uae this species were fo und,
last autumn, at He and ay Buttes, Wyoming,
by Mr. G. M. Keasbey and te write
Colonymys celer, gen. et sp. nov.
Another small rodent, about the size of the animal last de-
scribed, is indicated by several isolated molars, which differ
widely from the corresponding teeth in any genus of this group
rom the Green River Tettiary deposits. A typical upper mo-
lar in perfect condition has its crown composed of our princi:
pal cusps, regularly arranged in two pairs. The outer pair are
entirely separated from each other. The inner pair are very
near together, and have their summits turned toward the center
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 221
of the tooth. The two anterior cusps are connected by an out-
ward curving basal ridge. A similar ridge passes from the
outer posterior cone inward, but does not reach the opposite
cusp. This upper molar, which is apparently the penultimate,
measures 2-4™™* in antero-posterior diameter, and 2°1™™ in trans-
verse diameter. ‘he known remains of the present species were
found, last autumn, near Henry’s Fork, by Mr. H. D. Ziegler
and Mr. A. B. Mason, of the Yale party.
Apatemys bellus, gen. et sp. NOv.
specimen is a portion of a large rodent-like incisor. The molar
Transverse diameter of incisor,......-+-++++eee eee eete
This unique specimen was found, last September, near Henry's
Fork, by Mr. G. G. Lobdell, Jr.
Apatemys bellulus, sp. nov.
Another diminutive mammal, apparently of the same genus,
but somewhat smaller than the species last described, is we
> sissy by a lower jaw with the last three molars perfect.
he penultimate molar agrees in the composition of its crown
With that of A. Bellus, In the last lower molar, the outer border
of the posterior cavity forms a slightly eurved longitudinal
hich termina
nidge, whic es in asmall tubercle. The molar teet
are narrow, and the jaw compressed. The cavity for the incisor
extends below all the lower molars.
ts.
Space oceupied by last three lower molars,... +--+ +++ +++ : =
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,..-+-+-+++++ 21
Transverse diameter, ....---+s+-sesseeereeccctrerettet 16
Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate lower molar,... +2"
Transverse diameter, ..-. ++++++++ eonogeaney See acl
222 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
This interesting fossil was found, last autumn, near Henry’s
Fork, Wyoming, by Mr. G. M. Keasbey.
Entomacodon angustidens, sp. nov.
A very small insectivore, which appears to belong to the
enus Hntomacodon, left its remains in the Green River Tertiary
deposits, and our collections contain a left lower jaw, with the
last premolar and the two following molars in good preserva-
tion. ‘The molars agree essentially in the composition of their
crowns with those of #. minutus, but the three anterior cusps
are nearer together, and the one in front is nearly as high as the
others. The specimen indicates, also, a smaller animal than the
type of that species. The jaw is much compressed, and the teeth
are very narrow. The last premolar resembles the adjoiming
molar, but has the anterior cusp rudimentary.
Measurements.
Space occupied by last four lower teeth,..........-.+++5 55 9
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower premolar,.......- 1°6
Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate lower molar,....1°7
APADSVOISE GIAWEEEE wires syne bape © kmh 0 hg ore ie 6 6 me ¥
Depth of jaw below last lower molar,...........22.0+0+5 2°5
This specimen was found by Mr. J. J. DuBois, at Grizzly
Buttes, Wyoming, in September of last year.
Triacodon grandis, sp. nov.
The genus Zriacodon was established, by the writer, on @
single lower premolar, which differed widely from any corres
ponding tooth then known. The species thus represented was
called 7. fallax, and its possible marsupial affinities were sug
gested.* The researches of the Yale party during the past
mal, but much still remains to be ascertained. A portion of &
* This Journal, vol. ii, p. 123, August, 1871.
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 223
ridge. It indicates, moreover, an animal several times the bulk
“4 that species. Probably other remains of both species were
ound by our party, but have not been recognized as pertaining
to this genus,
Me :
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower premolar,......... Ese
Brees. Giamter, iis aus Socag st ese ay cd 5'8
Ae t of anterior cusp above jaw,.......sse0. seseeecs .5°2
eight of exterior cusp above jaW,........seesseeeereess 8
This rare specimen was found, by Mr. O. Harger, in the shale
near Henry’s Fork. The geological horizon was essentially the
Same as at Grizzly Buttes.
Triacodon nanus, sp. Nov.
much smaller species, apparently not more than one-half
the bulk of 7 Jallax, is indicated, likewise, by the peculiar last
°wer premolar. This tooth, like that in the other species, has
two fangs, There is a faint basal ridge, and the three pointed
cusps, that give the crown its character, are more nearly of
equal size than in either of the larger species.
Measurements.
antero-posterior diameter of last lower premolar,......... iene
Peet eree CUM Gt oe is ie vas pegs ee aes 3°
Height of anterior cusp above jaw,.....- bins ewan tess 2°5
Height of exterior CUSP ADOVE JAW,.... ccs erenrertecercn 4:
nna specimen, the only remains of the species at present
i" Own, was discovered at Grizzly Buttes, in September last, by
". G. G. Lobdell, Jr.
Euryacodon lepidus, gen. et sp. nov.
a tragment of an ane jaw containing the last two molars in
‘ : ur collections contain other characteris-
le fossils which 2 Re to be specifically identical with this
the name, Paleacodon verus, but each has its inner m
ae into a small tubercle. In the penultimate upper molar,
'S tubercle is especially prominent. outer , also,
Measurements.
Space occupied by last two upper molars,...-------+++++ 4°3 mm-
Antero-poste ior diameter of penultimate upper molar,....2°4
Transverse GiAMeter, .. <6 sb sc see cose ak ees Canes nee 3°8
Transverse diameter of last upper MOlar,. +++ sevsssess asso
224 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals.
The type specimen of this species was found, last autumn, at
Grizzly Buttes, by the writer, and other remains were discov-
ered, at the same locality, by Mr. O. Harger.
Paleacodon vagus, sp. nov.
Measurements.
Space occupied by last three upper molars,........-++.++> (pers
Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate upper molar,....2°7
ATAU VOrie CIMUIUER Coe Solas ees ola ec pas ee ae ke 4°
Antero-posterior diameter of last upper molar,..........-+ 21
EPatiCernd Ciel a ic ks shee cso es eee ea es we ees 3°6
The only known remains of this species were found at
Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming, by Mr. F. Mead, Jr.
Yale College, New Haven, August 15th, 1872.
Postscript.
August, 1871) were published together, in pamphlet form, a0
widely distributed, June 21st, 1871. The species there described,
munication were issued separately as follows:—Part I, J0
22d, 1872; Part IT, August 7th, 1872; Part II, August 13th,
1872; and Part IV, August 17th, 1872,—the date of publica-
tion being printed on each pamphlet. ct
e brief descriptions here given are merely preliminary t°
a full description, with illustrations, now in preparation.
Yale College, August 19th, 1872.
D. Kirkwood—Motions of the Perihelia of Jupiter, etc. 225
ART. XXIX.— On certain Relations between the mean motions of
the Perihelia of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune; by
Professor DANIEL KiIRKWOOD.
In Mr. Stockwell’s able memoir* on the secular variations of
the planary orbits, it is shown that the mean motions of the
perihelia of Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are as follows:
ET Tg oa iaige pine sem ge rennin Meunier cre ae 22’’.4608479
AITADUOY 0, 53:5 15s baw eae 3.7166075
Pieptune. i6:.icnvewew wt add ba ete” 0.6166849
Denoting these values by Nvi, Nvi, and Nviii, respectively,
we have,
Nvi_7Nvii+ @Nviii = 0'.1447048, . . . (1)
As these quantities depend upon the masses of the planets, some
of which are not i i
‘, Onigsberg astronomer, is
176.55. Now, it will be found that a value of 177”.17 (which
exceeds Bessel’s by 0”.62), corresponds to a mass, sz¢3 which
Nvi_7Nvii+6Nvii=O, . . . (2)
accurately true. The difference, 0.62, is less than that between
the determinations of the equatorial diameter of Saturn by the
est observers.
If equation (2) be exact, the corresponding relation between
the mean longitudes of the perihelia will be obvious, and it
Must follow that the perihelia of no three of the four outer planets
can simultaneously have the same mean longt _In short, if
’, Li, Lvii and Lili, represent the mean longitudes of the
Perihelia of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, respectively,
* Smithsonian Contributions, Washington, 1872.
} The mean motion of Jupiter’s perihelion is precisely the same.
AM. Jour. $o1.—Turrp Sariss, VOL. IV, No. 21.—SEPTEMBER, 1872.
15
226 Scientific Intelligence.
their mutual relations will probably be expressed by the follow-
ing equations:
Lri—7Lvi+6L™' = 180°, . . . (8)
Vv [i 6(LY*—L*") a 0, tare (4)*
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
nm the ammoniacal platinum bases.—CLEvE has continued
his slabovata investigation of the ammoniacal compounds of plati-
num, and has des cribed a number of new compounds containing
aniline and ethylamin. By heating chloride of plato-semi-diamine
in a sealed tube, with weak alcohol and an excess of aniline, a white
crystalline powder is obtained, which has the formula,
2NH
Pe} arc, ¢ le
This salt gives with chlorplatinite ee potassium a voluminous rose-
colored precipitate corresponding to the green salt of Magnus, and
having the formula
pr { 2NH X(NELC,)C1- “Ol t a :
The aie and oxalate of this base have respectively the formulas,
2NH 2
Pt | (NE (NHC )f2NOs, and Pt | a(NILC tes 0,+0H?.
By evaporating the chloride of this base with aniline, water, and
a little aleohol, a new chloride is obtained containing one atom
less of aniline, ‘and 26 er the formula,
2NH
Pt 13 NILOI, t Cl,.
By the action of iodine upon the first chloride ammonia is diset
gaged, and a yellow powder having the formula
NH
Pt NHC, | l
is hee en ath We may consider this iodide as derived from the
chloride,
N NH,
Pt} NH C,. NH,©, tL Cl,,
by the loss of the two external molecules, NH, anid NH,Cs-
nder the same circumstances the isomeric chloride,
* a the mone fret referred to, Mr. Stockwell has shown that while “ =
angul stance between the ‘perihelia of Jupiter and Uranus is —S y
180", " se Tongitude of each may differ from its ae ~ aS a considerable
fact, the present angular distance is but
Chemistry and Physves. 227
NH, . NH,C
Pt | NH, . NH,C, { Ol,
disengages the two external molecules of aniline, and we have
lodide of platosamin,
NH, .1
a | NH, .L
The second chloride above mentioned unites also with platinous
chloride to form a part which crystallizes in very brilliant, thin,
micaceons scales i
en aniline is dissolved in a concentrated boiling solution of
sulphate of plato-semi-diamine, colorless prismatic crystals are
obtained having the formula,
2NH,
Pt 3NH,C, 'SO,.
When chloride of platosamine, Pt(NH, ¥ Oly, is heated with ani-
line, water, and a little alcohol, thin nacreous scales are obtained,
Which have the formula,
NH, . NH,C
Pe} NH: . NH,C, Lo,
and are isomeric with the salt first described. The chlorplatinite
of this compound is a slightly soluble, crystalline, buft-colored
powder. The author describes also the normal sulphate and
nitrate,
By boiling the chloride of plato-semi-diamine with ethylamine,
Cléve obtained a chloride having the formula,
2NH
Pe 2NH,C, { Cla,
Which gives a beautiful green chlorplatinite. The solution of the
chloride gives with potassic iodide a precipitate having the
wa,
formul
NH
= Pt| Nic, fl
€ lsomeric chloride,
is easily obtained by the action of ethylamine upon chloride of
Platosamine, is much less soluble than the compound
hormal sulphate with 6 atoms of water of crystallization.— Bull.
W. G.
horus and platinum.—
UTZENBERGER has continued his investigations of the very
temarkable compounds of platinous chloride, and has arrived at
Mteresting results, When the compound, P(C,H,0),F° Cle, is
treated with ammonia, it becomes fiuid and gradually dissolves.
The solution gives on evaporation the chlorhydrate of a new base,
PN(C,H,0),H;Pt . NjH, . 2HCl.
228 Scientific Intelligence.
The compound, P,(C,H Oa Sg also dissolves in ammonia,
and yields the chlorhydrat
P,(C,H '0),Pt. NH,
The methyl compounds, P(CH,O), PtCl, ee Pt 2(CH,0),PtCl,,
yield similar compounds. It appears probable that the radical
and P 2(Cy H,0) gPtCl,, are = Berichte der ‘Detschen
: w.
3. On the specific heat of carbon.—H, F. Wexner has seid
Co—t = 0°0947+-0°000497t — 0°00000012t2.
By means of this formula the true specific heat, or the quantity of
heat necessary to raise the temperature of the unit of weight one
degree at t°, may be determined, since we have:
t:Oo— = fia
and =0 0947-40" 000994t — = 00000036t?.
This gives . following values for diamond:
0° 7y=0 es
50°. y= 071485
100° = 01905
150° 7 = 02357
200° y= 02791
In the case of graphite the author, from want Neg snow, made only
two determinations. These gav e the equation
Co—t = 0°1167+0-0008t
Mt = 0°1167-+0-0016t
These results explain the discrepancies in the iinet .
the specific heats of carbon by other physicists. They sh w tha
oar amond at about 525°C. would have a specific heat of 052 ee
as as the law.of Dulong and Petit requires. Weber considers
Chemistry and Physics. 229
his result as furnishing a strong argument against the law in
question, as in his opinion the law loses all chemical and physical
ote heat and internal work.—Berichte der Deutschen Chem.
@s., Jahrgang v, p. 303. Ww. G.
4. What determines Molecular Motion?—The Fundamentat
Problem of Nature ; by Mr. James Croxt.—Mr, Croll closes an
article of 25 pages in the July number of the Philosophical Maga-
ane with the following remarks
tery. This is the cherished hope of modern evolutionists, and of
the advocates of the physical theory of life. But it is a mental
i alized. A little consi-
(eration might satisfy any one that chemistry and physics will
€ terms light, heat, electricity, magnetism, &c., are different
hames which we apply to different modes of molecular motion ;
be known regarding them, yet it woud not afford us any explan-
ation of the cause of the determination of molecular motion m
organic nature.
. The character of a cause may often to some extent be judged
indirectly from the nature of the effects produced. —_ It is from the
effects produced that we know, for example, that that mode of
hat
he ff
this difference consists ; but it enables us to conelude with certainty
that there is a difference. Effects which are electrical we refer to
that unknown mode of motion called electricity. We do not
i electrical effects to gravitation or to heat ; fi
tween this effect and any electrical effect is ummeasura
230 Scientific Intelligence.
greater than between electrical effect and any effects produced by
heat, or by gravitation, or by any other of the forces of inorganic
natu ure, It would be far more rational to attribute all the phe-
nomena of the inorganic world, say, to heat, than to attribute the
jue of molecular motion in the organic world to chem-
ical and pie energie
It must now be obvious that nothing which can be determined
by the comparative Se caRee no o biological researches, n o mi
mal differs from another, or the parent from the child, it is because
in the building-up process the determinations of molecular motion
were different in the two cases; and the true and fundamental
ground of the difference must be sought for in the cause of the
. . . .
determination of molecular motion. Here in this region the doc-
oD
n re lig he matter than the fortuitous concourse of
atoms and the atomical philos Lage of = sug aie This, I trust,
will be rendered still cr evident w e come to examie m
detail the arguments advanced by Soba cap ntatenasaie in support
of thier fundamen tal hypothesis, ‘that the whole world, living
and not living, is the result of the mutual sapabe pe according
to definite laws, of the forces possessed by th eles of Mer
the primiti : nebulosity of the universe was composed.’ ”—Phil.
Mag., xiiv
5. On the 2 SS of as iaand Ceria from Zirconia and
Iron; by J. W. Taytor, F.G.S. (From a letter to one of the
Editors.)—The solution in "HCl is precipitated by ammonia, and
boiled for a few minutes. An excess of oxalic acid is then added
and the whole boiled for halfan hour; the zirconia and ir
possi e, ‘dropped into a strong solution of carbonate of am mmonia
—which will dissolve the yttria precipitate. A slight trace of ceria
ded — be dissolved ? which may be eliminated by repeating the
pre
On Quebec and Carboniferous Rocks in the Teton Range +
oh Prof. F. H. aa of the Hayden Exploring Expedition,
Sade bere to ack ee discovery of a few small trilobites,
mistakably of Quebee Group age, in the base of the mass
amatction which overlie the central granites of this Teton range
Geology and Natural History. 231
.
pale buff, somewhat vesicular, magnesian limestone, entirely with-
i i bo
its similarity to that seen in Malade valley, I am led to expect
similar results there when I work out its details, and that this
Same Quebec roup age must finally be made to include the basal
portion of the so-called Carboniferous limestone, through a large
i i he fossils
been overlooked heretofore, But for having suspected the age
m the character of the rock, I should probably have given up
the Search long before finding the fossils.
'€ start to-morrow for the ascent of the Grand Teton, and are
Sanguine of success, although the profile of the easiest slope
shows in one part a rise of 63°, and most of the peak reaches 48°,
inst.
n Cha
James Gurkin, F.R.S.E. (Geol. Mag., vols. viii, ix. ofessor
lations, upward 00,000 years ago), owing to the eccentricity
of the earth’s orbit being at a high value, and the winter of our
emisphere happening to fall in aphelion, a climate of intense
: e. t t
Sinilar conditions characterized the mountainous and northern
erica.
(2.) That the greater contours of the land were assumed at a
much earlier date than the advent of the Glacial epoch, and there-
fore guided the flow of the ice from the high grounds to the sea.
(3.) That, while the ice moved along the line of the principal
i i dulations of the ground, and
verflowed considerable hills. : ae
(4.) That the ti grundmorinen,” and “ moraines profondes
are the materials which gathered underneath the ice,—the general
232 Scientific Intelligence.
prevalence of smoothed and striated stones showing that the de-
posits referred to ree - have been derived from rocks above the
level of the mer de g
That one ae. ‘of glacial action was the erosion of rock-
basins.
(6.) That intense glacial conditions were interrupted by inter-
vening periods characterized by mild and even genial climates,—
the change es of climate being indirectly due to the precession of
the equinoxes, which, during a period of extreme eccentricity,
would gradually cause the bier: to shift from one SP to the
her.
ia; on the continent oe similar deposits; in America y
tiers of ents 9 with buried trees and extinct mammalia.
(8.) That the intermingling of northern and southern forms in
the caves and river-gravels points rather to former oscillations of
climate than to periods of strongly-contrasted summers an win-
ters,—the arctic mammalia indicating both the gradual approach
and the disappearance of "placlal conditions ; the southern forms
being memorials of genial climatal conditions by which the cold
or glacial periods were interrupted.
(9.) That the earlier stage of the — epoch embraced several
cold and warm periods; but how many re mutilated nature 0
the records does not at present daable ‘a us to
(10.) That the climate of the earlier cold sarod was more severe
ne Pes became in de gcse glacial periods of the same Brees
(13.) That this continental condition of Britain may have super
vened at a time when the climate was cold and ungenial, and the
arctic mammalia may then have revisited our land.
(14.) That the upheaval of land in the north of Europe, W which rs
joined Britain to the continent, was accompanied by a correspoD
ing depression in the south.
(15.) That during this movement a large part of Italy was SU ‘ll
merged, and deposits of sand filled up the rock- basins, which in ny
probability had been sil oe out in former ice-ages at the mout
of certain Nr gn valleys that open ee the plains of Piedmo ny :
(16.) That the fossils of these sands indicate a sel ne id
the Mediterranean similar to bers obtains at présent.
(17.) That during this depression in the south of ‘Europe con-
tinental Britain attained to the enjoyment of a mild climate.
Geology and Natural History. 233
(18.) That paleolithic man, and species of mammalia charac-
teristic of the temperate and
abounded in our country at this
and river-bed:
warm-temperate zone, may
time, and left their relics in caves
ZO have
(19.) That while the mild period continued, subsidence ensued
in northern Europe, b
level of the waves. (Formation of
(20.) That this depression in northern Eur
is movement of elevation in the south, asindicated by the old
(2
t.
1.) That ift :
of subsid if the upheaval in the
a legs depth than 100 fathoms.
(22.) Th
period con
which means Britain, from the north of
the kames, eskers, asar, etc.)
at the Dirnten lignite beds accumulated while this mild
tinued in Italy and the north of Europe.
23.) That when the submergence was approaching its limits =
b (24.) That consequently such a change of climate could not have
€en due to geographical causes.
(2
5.) Th
.
glaciers of Switzerland advanced
Oraines” some portion of those
at during the submergence in northern Europe, the
it
and covered up with “ newer
deposits which had gathered
mild p
(26.) That similarly in Italy the Alpine glaciers stole out from
i the plains of Pi
(2
time
iene land in the south of Europe bein
ably of greater extent than it is now
(28.) That the cold of this period di
earlier stages of the Glacial epoch
that
(29.)
ip
form:
of th
9,
That if any deposits indica
ed in the Mediterranean,
e
That the movement of depression in
f Piedmont,
tive of a cold sea were at this
they must be still under water,
g at that period most pro-
*
d not approach in severity
the north of Europe
234 Scientific Intelligence.
was reversed and converted into one of elevation. (Raised beaches ;
arctic shell clays.
(30.) That this upheaval again joined Britain to a continent.
(31.) That glaciers during this stage continued to fill the
mountain-valleys of Great Britain and Ireland. oa nes. )
(32.) That in those turbaries and deposits, which can be clearly
shown to be of more recent date than this last extension of the
glaciers in Britain and the continent, the human relics obtained
belong either to the Neolithic period or to still oe recent times,
and that these relics are never accompanied by the remains 0
hippopotamus, rhinoceros, or any of the han pee of mam-
malia,
(33.) That the climate of Britain during the period of local
glaciers was suited to the wants of arctic mammalia, and perhaps
the mammoth and Siberian rhinoceros may have survived to this
time.
(34.) That as the cold decreased, Britain became densely
wooded,—the climate then resembling probably that of Canada
before her cahgee were thinned. (aeganate) ; Bos primigenius ;
B. ie 5 ons,
(35.) That "ere hue Britain became pee and the sea
as to a greater height than its present lev
(36.) That finally the sea retired, and the Biches order of things
obtained.
3
West ‘Indies during the winter of 1868-9. He gives much new
information with regard to the geology and mineralogy of the
ae islands, and closes with the following summary °
the fa
From the account given above it is seen that the oldest rocks of
ve West Indies do not contain fossils, and are, on that account, of
nown geological age. ey occur in Trinidad, and are
called the Caribbean series. They extend farther to the west in
the northern part of South America. It seems Mote uncertain
whether this series occurs in the other West India is
The oldest fossiliferous separ? hel the West fndiat a enipales
belong to the Cretaceous format
The Cretaceous formation i is spade in Trinidad, Jamaica and
One Trigonia resembling 7. Boussé vipers is found in the “0 ie
Parian,” and this circumstance seems to indicate that, the time tor
the deposit of those beds is about the Neocomian period.
Geology and Natural History. 235
oi Cretaceous beds of Jamaica may be classed as a West
an equivalent to the European Hippurite lime or to the
uronien”” and Gosau deposit.
os ji
ean ca, in Trinidad (th n Fernando beds), as also in S
olo m e regarded, too, as very probable that
W : - :
Rows a may be classed as equivalents to the lower or middle
ne a sae of Europe (the lower “ caleaire grossier ” of Paris
Anguilla, Anti ree
whit a, Antigua, Barbados and Trinidad. In St.
f € marl also seems to belong to the Miocene time. The Miocene
an e Miocene time
open channel existed over Panama to the acifie Ocean, and
re that a connection with Europe existe in form of an archi-
eae extending from Europe across the ocean to the West Indies.
a aged indicated and developed by Messrs. Duncan, Sowerby,
h nd Moore, seems very plausible, and it coinei i
ee potnesia which Oswald Heer proposed to explain th
it between the European Miocene and the still
‘al North American flora.
Pea Miocena fauna of the West Indies does not, however, offer
ae close affinities with the Miocene fauna 0 North America.
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. ix, 1853, p. 132,
236 Scientific Intelligence.
The thickness of the Miocene strata of the West Indies, as well
as their generally undisturbed position and the absence of volanic
rocks, indicates that the Miocene time was, in the West Indies, a
long period of calm, undisturbed by vo anic —
The ‘Plivesné beds of the West Indies oecur in Trinidad (the
Matura beds) and i in Barbados. To the newest Pliocene or Post-
Ye referred. “et these deposits occur among rocks ejected from
b
a very recent time.
From the facts exposed above it may consequently be inferred,
that of the two prevailing lines of elevation in the West Indies the
one running from west to east originated before the Miocene time,
and that the other from N. W. to S. E., commencing with th
Bahamas and continuing in the sas direction down to Trinidad,
was formed after the Miocene tim
n the piers hn tg of the memoir, the following are
described as new minera
Resanite.— by des ous silicate of pte and iron, of an olive-
green color, uncrystalline and G = 2°06. The analysis afforded
Si 35-08, Ou 23°18, Be 9-91, H (vol. at 100° C.) 23°15, TI (ign.) 8°53=99°85.
It gives the formula, if the iron is protoxide, k? Si*. It is hog
decomposed by h drochloric acid. Named after Pedro Res
Bartholomite—In yellow nodules, composed of small readied
The analysis gave
5 44-75, Be 22- 71, Mg 0-63, Na 17-08, H 8-08, Na Cl 2°88, insol. 3°56=99'69.
Separating the common salt, the magnesia as sulphate and the
meer it gives the form ula
S + Fe and ie 50°00, Be 25-00, Na 19°38, H 5°62==100.
It is vinta to botryog
evonian and Linea Carboniferous Plants.—In the Proceed-
ings s of the Geological Society of London, published May, 1872, is
an interesting paper, by Prof, Heer, on the Fossil Plants of Bear
Island, Spitzber; en. As catalogued by him, the flora of this place,
which occurs in shales associated with coal, and below the gp
Carboniferous limestone, includes a remarkable mixture of t
plants of the Lower Carboniferous or Subcarboniferous of eer
d America, with ferns characteristic of the Upper. Devonian.
a
this high northern latitude a transition from the Devonian
to that of the Carboniferous. In North America such a transition
occurs in Ohio, but in other localities these floras are somew
Geology and Natural History. 237
distinct ; and in the east the two series containing them are un-
conformable, rof. Heer, however, somewhat impairs the value
that formation, He even goes so far as to hold that the plants
of the American Chemung and Hamilton groups must be Carbon-
iferous also. This, however, proceeds from want of acquaintance
on his part with the rich Middle Devonian flora of Eastern
America, the resemblance of which to that of the Coal-measures,
im general facies, and especially in its richness in ferns, has misled
other European paleobotanists accustomed to regard the Middle
Devonian as comparatively barren in plants, whereas in fact it
contains a flora comparable in richness with that of the Coal-for-
mation, though distinct as to species
Mr. Daintree has recently read before the same society a paper
on the Geology of Queensland, Australia, in which he refers to a
Devonian flora existing there; and Mr, Carruthers, who has exam-
ined hig specimens, identifies some of them with species found in
the Devonian of North America. We have thus the wonderful
fact of the extension of a Lower Carboniferous and Devonian flora
5. Pp
the Proceedings, containing records commencing with April 4,
wing :
P ‘Aa Henry Wurtz, in an article (p. 103) on the rock of the
alis
having G=2-94, from Prof. Cook (Geol. of New Jersey, p. 215).—
and, s
thene 40, he gives for the calculated result—
_ $i53-5, 3118-2, Pe 8-7, Mg 8-7, Oa 7-4, K, Na 27=99°2.
[We strongly suspect from the resemblance of the rock to that
t -
ents are essentially the same that have been obtained in analyses
of the New Haven rock.—s. D. D. ;
A mica schist filled with minute crystals of kyanite covers large
areas, according to Professor D, 8. Martin, on New York islan
East 424 street, near the Union Depot, and also between
46th streets, west of Madiso i
Tock is probably continuous from one point to the other.
238 Scientific Intelligence.
Prof. Martin also states (p. 222) that granular limestone has
been found in the gneiss in East 124th street, which is probably a
prolongation of the ridge at Mott Haven and slaw wien in West-
chester county.
Dr. J. L. Newberry scone: on page 224, that the iron ore on
the Cling water, in etki ing, discovered by Dr. Hayden, contains
p. ¢. of titanic ac
U. 8. Geolo ogi ants Survey of the Territories ; F. V. HaypEN,
U. ‘8. Geolog gist in charge. Profiles, Sections and other I. lustre
tions designed to accompany the jinal report of the Chief Geologist
of the Survey, and sketched under his directions ; by Henry
Exxiorr. Under authority of the Secretary “6 ~ Interior, 1872.
gra = cal,
7. Damouritie ss schist of Salm-Chdteau.—Messts.
L. D. pz Kontyox and P. Davrevx have analyzed a schist look-
ing as if steatitic, pape have found it to consist of a hydrous mica
affording “ perfectly ” the compositions of damourite, “ K, 31, 6Si,
2H.” Some transparent and slightly elastic mica-like plates in the
rock have the same constitution as the rock itself. The garnets are
manganesian, or of the fae spessartite.—Proc. Acad. Loy.
Belg., ee 6, L’ Institut, July 1
8. Bathmodon sors ns of Cope. —Prof. Corr stated that the
inzgest | mamma the Eocene formation segs those of
tween the types of hoofed animals. The single outer
cresc a ruminant ain while the inner table resem
bled the interior part of the crown ‘of Vitanotherium. It differed,
however, in its early union with the outer margin, its edge i
thus possibly h omologous with the posterior transverse crest
Geology and Natural History. 239
Rhinoceros, The premolars had two or three lobes with cres-
centic section arranged transversely. He regarded the genus as
of the most marked of these was the genus Hipposyus, described
by Dr. Leidy,
9. On some New Species of Fossil Mammalia from Wyoming;
by Dr. Jos. Lerpy. (From a letter to Mr. Tryon, dated Fort
Bridger, J uly 24th, printed in advance of the Proceedings of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and issued Aug.
se
often with abundance of fresh-water shells, also pa oceur.
There are often isolated lands surrounded by broad plains or
As the buttes crumble away under the effect of the weather, the
fossils of their strata become exposed to view.
On the 17th, in company with Dr. J. Van A. Carter and Dr.
Joseph K. Corson, U.S.A., I made a trip to the valley of Dry
Cree » forty miles from Fort Bridger. Here we encamped, a
a three days in exploring the neighboring buttes for fossils.
Most abundant vertebrate remains are e of
shells of which are frequently met with in little heaps of fragments
m
se of the tapir-like animal which I have named Pak h
Paludosus, We also found a number of more characteristic speci-
mens than I had before seen of the larger species of Palwosyops
djor. Dr. Corson further discovered the remains of a small
Species which may be named PaLs®osyors HUMILIS. An upper
240 Scientific Intelligence.
diameter. We likewise found some additional remains of
yrachyus agrarius, and better specimens than I before had of
the larger Hyrachyus eximius. A -preserved last lower molar
toe
of a pair of transverse lobes, with sloping sides and acute summits,
the upper canine teeth, apparently of the most formidable of car-
sabre-toothed tiger. The more perfect specimen consists of nearly
nine inches of the enameled crown. its perfect condition the
character consists in the lance-head-like form of the terminal three
inches. It is thickened at the axis, and impressed and expanded
toward the edges, so as to be actually broader in one portion than
immediately above. e antero-posterior diameter of the crow?
near its base is two inches; the thickness over an inch. ese
canine teeth, terminating in lance-like points, must have proved
most terrific instruments of slaughter. Their possessor was 20
doubt the scourge of Uinta, and may therefore be appropriately
named UINTAMASTIX ATROX,.
Geology and Natural History. 241
Plates.—Contains descriptions of species of Corals, Brachiopods
and Gasteropods. The figures are excellent.
ll. On the Fossil. Man of the cavern of Broussé-roussé, in Italy,
called the cave of Mentone; by E. Rrvrerv.—This skeleton is very
nearly complete, it wanting only some bones of the feet, and also
the lower extremity of the left tibia, and the posterior extremity
of the caleaneum of the same side, broken by the stroke of the
pick-axe which brought the skeleton to light.
© measurements show that the skeleton is one of large size.
The skull was very dolicocephalous, and its facial angle good, ap-
eee eee Fr closely resembles the man of Cro-Magnon found
daphus, Cervus Canadensis, a Cervus which may be the stag of
apra primigenta(?), Antilope rupicapra
of ZL Among these animals, three
b mong the other objects present there are two flint knives, a
ne pin cut from the radius of a stag, and 22 canines of the stag
perforated,
h e bones were all'in place, the attitude being that of a man
Who had died in his sleep just where he was found, that is, on a
m f h
e.
13. The Geology and Physics of the Post-glacial period, as
. Liverpoo
©Ol. Soe, uthor, after giving detailed des-
ean of the region and its Post-glacial formations, presents the
followi i after a laying down of the boulder-
clay, the land was elevated above its present level, and again
depressed below it, the valleys of the present Lancashire and
242 Scientific Intelligence.
out of the boulder drift; that a re-emergence took place, and a
pause, when the inferior peat and forest beds were formed; that
a second subsidence took place, denuding these peat beds, and
making the Formby and Leasowe marine beds; that an upward
movement succeeded, and then grew the forest trees, remains of
T. M. Brewer, of Boston, and Mr. R. Rid
promised by December Ist, by Messrs. Little, Brown o-5: Sa
with such authors, and Dr. Baird at the head, the work will
assuredly be one of high merit, and just what is needed. The
American birds, in most cases of life size. The publishers state
that two editions will be issued, one with colored, the other with
uncolored, illustrations.
15. Fossil Oephalopods of the Museum of Comparative Zoology +
Embryology ; by AupuEevs Hyarr. Bulletin of the Museum, vol.
ii, No. 5.—This memoir contains the results of a careful investr
gation with respect to the embryology and structure of ammonites
and related cephalopods, by a study of the shell in its different
stages of development, and also by a comparison of its characters
with those of the living nautilus, :
16. Boston Society of Natural History.—Number 3 of part 1
of vol. iii, of the Memoirs of this Society, recently issued, com
tains an elaborate memoir by Elliott Coues, M.D., on the Osteo
logy and Myology of Didelphys Virginiana, with an appendix 0?
its brain, by Jeffries Wyman.
ay rescent Salt obtained twelve miles from Denver, Colorado,
contains, according to P. Frazer, Jr., sulphate of soda, 63°5 x.
cent., sulphate of lime 9°70, water 21°88, chloride of sodium, SU®
phate of magnesia, &c., 4°55.—Hayden’s Report on Wyoming,
1871, p. 187.
IIt. Asrronomy. Loe
1. Annals of the Observatory of Harvard College, v0h ide,
and G. P. Bond. The first. series was published in vol. i, part i
and included the places of 5500 stars; thesecond, in vol. ii, part ™
Astronomy. 248
and included the places of 4484 stars. The tables in vol. vi—the
third series—contain the places of 6100 stars between 0° 40’ and
1° 0’ north declination. :
Volume vii, comprises brief tables and numerous plates, illus-
trating the positions and characters of solar spots, from the obser-
vations of Prof. Wm. C. Bond during the years 1847-49. e
plates number 112. Professor Winlock says, in his preface to the
volume, that the drawings, here reproduced, “ furnish a more per-
is observations.” The plates are engraved with great apparent
2. Astronomical Engravings of Moon-Oraters, Sun-Spots, ete. ;
by the Observatory of Harvard College. —The aerethieg” “
Coll
ns
“The Director of the Observatory of Harvard College purposes
to publish a series of astronomical engravings, which shall repre-
Observatory under his charge. ; : i
The series will consist of at least thirty pictures, and will em-
ences, nebulas, and spectra of variable stars. — ;
© obtain some assistance toward defraying the expense 0
Set. The pictures will be delivered from time to time as they are
completed, and they will be followed by some pages of notes and
explanations.”
The few specimen plates sent us are excellent, and of great
T: -%
ation to the greatest extent. At 1.30 P.M. the maximum east
declination occurred; it then gradually diminished, increasing
a
Position. The horizontal force was comparatively little ee
the whole range of the disturbance amounting only to 070268 0:
244 Scientific Intelligence.
last he found in the sun some re s of great extent remarkable
for the presence of magnesium, stretching over an arch from 12 to
168 degrees; and that on the 1 he presented to the Spectro-
n
the spectroscope around the whole border, that is, the whole
chromosphere was invested with vapors of this metal. Under this
general ebullition, there was naturally an absence of pe ae
while the flames of the chromosphere were very marked and bril
liant; and the more brilliant the flames 7 A pap: the amount of
magnesium indicated.—_L’ Institut, July 10
e August Meteors were observed, on the night of 9-10, at
Sheffield Hall, by Prof. C.S. Lyman, aided b y some Aces assistants.
ales to 103 0 co ti regular watch was kept, but 30 or 40
were ced. After the numbers were as follows:
"from 10} to iy o by 6 observers.
it oe 6 “
. > 50,
6G 114 oe 12, 61, o (a9
“ 12 “ 19456,% 5 «&
a. a (most of the time).
“ 1 * 14, 42, “ 4 «“
6c 14 “ 2, 32, “ 2 (74
“ 9 « 9 4, soa 74
2 +“ 34, some haze; accurate _— not kept; but
the number was at about oe same rate. Several were brilliant,
leave colored trains, At about 8 minutes past 12 one exploded
with a bright flash in the east. e paths were not mappe “
greater. There was much auroral light in the north all night,
with occasional streamers about midnight. No cloudiness in the
sky until after 3 o’cl
Pro fessor R. W. McFarland, of Miami University, Oxford, Ohio,
states, in a letter dated Oxford, Aug. 12, cme he observed on the
morning of the 10th from a quarter before 3 to 5 minutes before
4, and counted in that time 62 meteors.
6. On two new p ; by Prof. C. H, F. Prrzrs. (From 4
letter to one of the Editors, dated Litchfield Observatory of ppt
ilton College, Clinton, N. Yu ms 17.)—I have obtained the
Astronomy. 245
(1.) Asteroid (122).
1872. Ham. Coll. m. t. APP. a. App. 6. No. of comp.
Bom! & h. 8. Seats id
4 16 9 37 «31 48 sea? 1 41 84900
Soke AT. 89: 49... 2k 48, 2986 cn Bie ES 12
coe AAS 0 a a Oe 12
Oe ee eae 21 46 5952 —11 52 382 10
Ce ree ee ae ee et ee. 10
SEO OER BY 21 45 3547 —12 0 21 10
pear Wa : 10 (21 —W 8 131 8
per&, 40. .B1y,48. WSL Ap12, da ed 10
sO 28 BS. Oh 42 ade. 18 ea 10
The magnitude of the planet is between 11th and 12th.
(2.) Asteroid (12 3).
1872. Ham. Coll. m. t. App. a. App. 6. . No, of comp.
Sete. ee m. ‘ 4
Aug 1, 12 8 29° 21 «BY 3003 100 4 BBS 12
S00 oS IS MS 1S. 1 Oh BORE, Ne. BSS 8
Wi sei Meee 1 55 491 —10 10 155 5
Doct vldy OS: SB: Aly Bh ee 18 oR, 8 6
Py eB a es Sis ae te Ae 10
Po & 18 8258: SR Re ees 10
8 12 29 68 1 50 4320 .—10 20 267 6
The magnitude of this planet is estimated about 12th. On Jul
31 I succeeded only in obtain ning a rough e estimate of position,
pea aon not permitting accurate measurements.
will be no difficulty in finding the planets pr after the disoae
heht, even without ephemerides.
‘Speet tra of sar-ehine; night-light, - peocewee light ; by
S. Pra 221-SMYTH.—* And what sort of spectrum ought
such stabahite > and night ‘ear to offer to senha
ad locality of its formation, very much “like the waite of the
ast twilight fact, according to numerous observa-
tions on the Sicilian night sky, when free from any accusation of
aurora, I found such ohuaniee to yield a short iesnereg hna c
trum; and that culminating, not at the aurora line place of W. L.
5579, but near W. L. 5350.
ow this place evidently corresponds within the limits of error
of observation to that of the rit residual portion of the continous
ence we are led to she Fon olanita that the spectram 0 4
acal light is the same in kind as that of either s
Sunshine. Whence the further deduction is caritable. that the
246 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
older astronomical theory of the zodiacal light being the solar
t ro jus
negatived by the spectroscope: for “ no two speouray” as the lady
most truly said in the Royal Gcvaiery at Palermo, “can be
more essentially different than . of the aurora and the zodi
acal light. They are as different from one another as night from
day.— Monthly Notices Astron. Sots , June, p. 285.
so MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
t of Elevations and Distances in that portion Pi the
United "eatin west of the Mississippi River; collated and
See by Prof. MS Tuomas, Assistant i S. Ge ological Survey
under Dr. I, V. Haypmn. 32 pp. 12mo. Washington, 1872.—
W. ere Table x1, of elevations in <Coldtnd; from this valu-
able catalogue of elevations :—
Names of Points. a | Names of Points. se rae
Feet. sis
pea Harvard ide eke ona kdb S10) CORRES PARB sc 6. oan cadwwnne 12,400
8 Peak 14,145 | Argentine Pass -. 13,100
Mount — a --. 14,123 | Georgia Gulch Pass, .....---- 11,487
... 14,078 Ute Pass, 2. 11,300
Pike 4 Peak (Parry), = Rw 14,216 | Vasquez Pass (estimated), -..- _ 11,500
a Somantting Se sak 14,056 | Hot Springs (Idaho City). sean 87088
Barns Peak 13,133 | Hot Springs (Middle Park), --- 7,725
Mena. 2,878 | SodaS inoe naar Pie v's Peak) 6,515
Mount Wright (E. Berthoud’s Gold Hh 1, 1636
-. 11,800/1 vet eo 8 Ranch eee Co.), 7,752
cherry Creek Divide,......._. 7,576 |< South Park, ..----- 9,842
Denver. 5,317 | 1 tai Soke
Golden City, 5,882 ot Berthoud’ Papen coc 9,325
youn. 6,479 | Osborn’s Lake,....---. ------ 8,821
Golden Gate, 6,226 VoRie Peak Co eae 13,456
Junction N. and 8. Clear Mount Audubon, vieWeenciss 13,402
eee ae ee 6,46 .
Black Hawk, 1,5 Line (Parry).
Central City, 8,043 | On Pike's Peak igs -aanenttr ss 12,000
Missouri 9,073 | On Snowy Range, .....------ ,
ead Virgin Ceron 20505 20 9,690 | On Meant Andee, bea eae Lied
"7,149 | On Long’s Peak, _.._...-.---- 0,80 ;
Gentaetoen 8,245 | On Wind River Mountains, - 10,16
Berthoud Pass, 10,896 | On Gilbert’s Peak (Uinta Moun- ib
Boulder Pass, 11,670! tains. Hayden’s esac a 11,10
The pamphlet closes with the following “ Remarks :”—
“ An examination of the foregoin sare cede pa with those
found in the reports of the surveys of Pro son for
1870 and 1871, reveals some very i sipostaen * Sista 3 in regard to rt
topograph y of the west; — which we may mention the fo
lowin Teed neral in b-
“That t ai oer Bntseailo, or “Staked Plains,” at their nort’
ern satiety. ‘hidlapilintaty south of the Canadian river, vary , -
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 247
regular and broken, the bighest point being near the west mar-
gin; at the south end they are much more regular, the highest
point being near the eastern flank. The average elevation of this
extensive table land is about 4,000 feet above the sea.
D e average ascending grade along Captain Pope’s line, from
reston to the margin of the Llano Estacado, is about ten feet to
the mile,
e average ascent along Lieutenant Whipple’s line, from
i he margin of the Llano
b
Cheyenne it is over nineteen feet to the mile.
as m Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellow-
b ne, to Fort Benton, is only about two and a half feet per mile ;
ut from there west to the base of the mountain it increases
rapidly until it averages about twenty feet to the mile.
of Colorado
moun-
mes, lies directly
of Colorado and northern boundary of Nebraska; second, the
horthern line i t measured directly at right angles with the
range. The line along the Yellowstone would give the ascent
more correct J:
It would be an interesting problem in mathematical geology
(if we may use such a term) to ascertain the immense amo
débris covering these vast. plains which has been washed down
m to form some estimate of their
at mountain plateau which
Wahsatch range is about 6,500
feet above the level of the sea, and is about 1,200 feet above the
aera borders of the plains, and 2,200 feet above the Salt Lake
sin. .
The average fall of the principal rivers is as follows:
Of S 3 P P about five feet to
the Rio Grande, from Isleta to El Paso, :
gpa but from Isleta south for some distance it is about six
eet.
248 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
That of the Pecos is not more a four feet to the mile.
The Canadian, from the mouth of the a creek for two
hundred miles eastward, is nine feet od the mile.
The Arkansas, from the mouth of the Apishpa river to Fort
Atkinson, eight or nine feet.
The South Platte, from Denver to its junction with the North
Platte, is nine or ten feet to the mile; while that of ines North
Platte, from Fort Fetterman to the e junction, is onl n feet.
The Platte below the junction has an average descent of “aboxl six
feet to the mile.
The fall of the Missouri river, from Fort Benton to the mouth
of the Yellowstone, is about two feet to the mile; and from the
latter tee to its mouth, near St. Louis, it averages a fraction less
than one
Snake siver, from the mouth of Ross’s Fork, north, about six
feet to the mile.
ishing the barometric pressure, the direct cause is the deficiency
of oxygen, = that an animal that will die with the pressure
reduced to 18 cm. (7 inches) will endure a reduction to 6 cm.
(2°4 inches) before life is extinet, if oxygen be added. And the
converse is also true that the evil of too great pressure comes
mainly from the too large amount in that case of oxygen, dilution
with nitrogen prolonging life. He remarks that workmen em
ployed at great elevations would accordingly find benefit in an
arrangement for supplying more oxygen; and those occupied i In
diving for — ete. ne a contrivance for supplying nitrogen.—
Les Mondes, July
3. The e Temperatu ure and Rainfall v. July, 1872; by C. Kev
GEN, Jr., Meteorologist to the Board of Health, County of Rich
mond (Staten Island), N. Y. (Communicated for this Journal.)
e month of July, 1872, exhibited the highest temperature
and greatest rainfall ‘ever recorde = this island, for any one
nth ture mean was 781, the maximum 96, 2 and
she minimum 64°2 degrees. The total vainfall amounted to 1134
waclp ee
12mo, pp. ae allo gis books are deservedly in hg
mation ee tage a doubt which a word of affirmative stateme?
would remove.
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES]
Arr. XXX.—On the nature and duration of the discharge oe a
Leyden Jar connected with an induction coil; by OcpEen N
Roop, Prof. of Physics in Caines Boliesk art II.
IN the first and second parts of this paper,* I described with
some minuteness the nature and duration of the discharge of a
' oderate sized and of a smell jar, she connected with an
induction coil; one i point has, however, thus far
ee renctes, ee to = sede ce the present paper
* This Jou
t Prof. J ootph Le Conte te choot aaa elaborate paper on the subject of
binocular vision (this Jo haat July, 1871), na oy oged to the fact that most writ-
6m
183 ae iy urati
a 5, part ii, p. 5 BO) santrpd t dhe. seeels ee eas aes
Second. Mr. Le Conte, on the authority of De la Rive and Daguin,
tH
i
i
pieces
eee tee ong at oie
Sige generated a ened electric light,
an Gi en line of weak ‘th
®xactly the same as though they ha from a
Bie he cngerdg ae pee tank ine tommnion et tho discharge of «Leyden Jr A,
Am. Jour. Son Tacx Sentes, VoL. IV, No. 22.—Ocr.,
250 0. N. Rood—Nature and Duration of
ee = a spark. it is tet as I shall show, to
adjust either the cloct#ioat surface of the jar, or its striking dis-
tance, so that with a given coil only a single st will be pro-
a
Much of the apparatus employed was that already described,
but it may not be amiss to “ak here some details reper it,
sen cups, arranged for meet and the length of the simple
was less —_ 7xbg0 Of a second. These experiments, he states, were Be
ay fe eee ving 800 — in a second, with exactly the same
At the time I wrote my paper I was perfectly well nap that pn
tioned in the same paper that he had obtained of ae
taking place alf an ile of copper one, a duration of zrb0g :
second. This I take to be an y different matter intrinsically, an andit
also from my own experiments, e the circuit was as short ble,
is easy corres’ opinion was ente: of 8
the Discharge of a Leyden Jar. 251
ling or trebling its velocity made any perceptible difference.
more natural conditions. fee
Revolving apparatus.—The same train of toothed wheels was
used, a double silvered mirror being now attached to the a
axis, reckoning from that with the weight. | Its rate of revolu-
tion could be varied from half a revolution up to three per
252 O. N. Rood—Nature and Duration of
second. This rate was accurately ascertained by causing the
lowest wheel to wind up a fillet of paper, on which secon
marks were at the time impressed.
scribed were quite invisible.
Micrometers.—The general mi tri 9
in part second of this paper, under the head “ Micrometer,” was
sometimes employed, the strip of white paper being replaced
by a small cylindrical mirror, situated under the spark. A
tube of glass filled with mercury was used for this purpose.
On the other hand, sometimes an achromatized cale spar pmsm
was employed, being located between the eye of the observer
and the image on the ground-glass; but for actual work, an-
other and much simpler proceeding was found to furnish results
equally reliable, with an expenditure of less time and patience.
his method, which at first sight may seem rude and unreliable,
consisted merely in holding on the ground-glass along the
£1 awe ee
electrical phenomena of an unvarying nature, the other methods
would probably have yielded more accurate results ; but 12 the
present case, where the actual variations often rose as high as
50 per cent of the quantity involved, this mode, as the follow
ing experiment shows, is all that could be desired.
x strip of paper was formed on a plate of grouse.
the hands of the experimenter. The disc was
now set in rapid rotation and illuminated with
simple (not multiple) electric sparks, an i
tempts were made to measure the length of the
image of the strip of paper with a pair of ier
passes, in the manner just indicated. The room was only sutl
ciently light to enable me to perform this work, and the meas
the Discharge of a Leyden Jar. 253
urements were from time to time transferred machanically to
paper, without inspection. After the end of the experiment,
the actual size of the image on the ground-glass was measured,
furnishing thus the test of the degree of accuracy attained.
Observations.
33°5 millimeters. 35° millimeters.
34°3 42°
31:2 43°3
34°6 42°3
33°6 44°4
32°8 45
34°] 44°5
33°5 41.5
28° 42°
34° 43°9
32° —
30° average 42°39
34°4 actual size 43°50
32°
34°4
31°5
29°
34:
34°]
average 32°6
actual size 32-
about 25 per cent. I may remark here that my friend Presi-
dent Morton, who repeated for me some of these experiments,
obtained without difheulty similar resul
ts.
icrometer dise.—It was considered desirable, figs are
illuminated by a multiple electric spark, the disc w
254 O. N. Rood—Nature and Duration of
to the eye of the observer placed ten or twenty inches behind
it, an appearance like that in fig. 8. It is evident that by in-
creasing the rate of rotation of the disc, or by diminishing the
angle between its open sectors the termination of the outer
series of illuminated sectors, may be made to coincide with the
beginning of the interior series, when the included angle will
give a measure of the total duration of the phenomenon. In
practice the interior sector was cut in a second and smaller disc,
which was placed on the same axis with the first, a portion 0
this latter being removed so as to allow of any angular adjust-
ment within 90°. The larger disc was graduated on its circum-
ference. In some of the experiments this arrangement 0
movable sectors was repeated for each quadrant, but as a gene-
ral thing it was found safer to confine the operation to a single
quadrant. Besides this, the exterior portion of the outer sector
was provided with a prolongation, consisting of
small slit, which was very useful in furnishing
information regarding the number of the dls-
charges in a given case, as with sectors 2$° in
width the images frequently overlapped. Most
of the dise observations were made with a train
3.
Form and duration of the discharge of the larger jar, with brass
balls as electrodes,
In this set of experiments the length of the simple induction
4, spark, blunt brass points being used as elec:
trodes, was 48 millimeters.
Striking distance 1 millimeter.—The form
others. Fig. 4 roughly represents the ap-
pearance with the revolving mirror. _ The
* The actual duration of sparks called in this paper instantaneous has already
been given .
the Discharge of a Leyden Jar. 255
age duration of the mixed phenomenon, ‘the determination of
the duration of the two constituents was more troublesome.
eeoereene eves
Striking distance 2 millimeters. —Only a single discharge was
generated, and the same was true up to the maximum striking
distance, which in this experiment was 2°6 millimeters.
Form and duration of the discharges of the larger jar with plati-
um points as electrodes.
The length of the simple induction sparks was 48° millimeters.
Striking distance 1 millimeter—The form was the same as
shown in fig. 4; the number, however, varied commonly from 2
to 4, rarely reaching 5.
Total duration with 2 discharges,.......--- 0020 sec.
= ‘3 “ 4 er copes Pee 0064 “
The average interval was ......-.-+++-++: 0020 “
Striking distance 2 millimeters.—The form was still the same,
with two, three and rarely four discharges.
Total duration with 2 discharges,....-.-+-- ‘0027 sec.
‘ ee BS Bel se 0061 «
The average interval waS......-.+--e+eees 0028 *
Striking distance 8 millimeters.—Two and seldom three dis-
charges,
Total duration with 2 discharges,......---- 0040 sec.
Striking distance 4 millimeters.—Generally only one discharge ;
rarely two. In one disc ex riment the interval between the
two discharges was doubtfully determined as ‘0036 sec.
Striking distance 5 millimeters.—Only a single discharge—
about one spark in 20 was double.
Striving distance 6 millimeters.—Using the revolving dise, I
looked for a long time and was not able to detect any double
discharges, so that from 6 millimeters up to 11 millimeters,
which was the maximum striking distance, the discharges
Proved to be simple, instantaneous sparks.
these experiments that
panied by a corre-
256 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Birds.
ArT. XXXI— Notice of some New Tertiary and Post-Tertiary
Birds ; by O. C. MARSH.
THE discoveries of the last few years have shown conclu-
sively that remains of Birds, so long unrepresented ane
the fossils of this country, are occasionally found well preserv
in some of our deposits of Cretaceous age.* Although still rare,
they are more numerous in the Tertiary formation; and our
Post-pliocene beds, doubtless rich in such remains, are begin-
ning to yield many interesting forms of this class. The
present paper contains preliminary descriptions of several species
of birds, which were found by the Yale party during their ex
lorations of last year in the lower Tertiary strata of Wyoming.
o these are added a few species of interest from the Post-
~<a of the Atlantic coast.
—— nobilis, gen. et sp. NOV.
ing bone in the Cranes, but the inner or second eters
element is more priduced distally, and its articular face has _
the oe ee tubercle less developed. The tibia, also, has the
lear groove on the posterior face of its distal extremity
ak shallower. The distal articular ends of the second and
fourth metatarsals are nearly equal in size, and the foramen
between the third and fourth is large.
Measurements.
Transverse diameter of distal end of tarso-metatarsal, - - -- - 16° Ae
antere eoeerees asset of distal end of second metatarsal, e :
Transverse diameter, 2 6 -.once ek oc ce
Asterobinkictide diameter of distal end of fourth metatarsal, 1 92 z
Transverse diameter, . ..-2- p48 is en Co es
e known remains of this species were found in —
O.
i. at Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming, by Mr. O. Harger of the -
Yale ey The geological besser was lower cout or
Koc
Aletornis pernix, sp. nov.
A smaller species, which may for the present be referred to
the same genus, is represented also by some fragmentary spec!
mens, found together and evidently belonging to one ore
e most important of these remains is the distal nd o a
* This Journal, vol. xlix, p. 205, March, 1870, and vol. iii, p. 360, May, 1872.
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Birds. 257
“ae anterior border. The species was about as large as a
et ibis.
Measurements.
Antero-posterior diameter of outer condyle at distal end of
101 pet Cops es. we Usk pec ie wae See eee ae oe 9: mms
Transverse diameter in front, ...-..------ «+--+ -s++- 3
Vertical diameter in by cu snnes os dame iomarekar eins
Width of trochlear groove on posterior face of tibia, ----- 5
The specimens on which this species is based were found by
the writer, last autumn, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming. The
geological position of this locality is essentially the same as
that at Grizzly Buttes. ‘
Aletornis venustus, sp. Nov.
e m
Rost entirely inside the central line. The opening below the
bridge is a broad transverse oval, and looks forward, down-
Ward, and slightly inward. The tendinal canal is broad, and
deepest on the inner side: its floor is nearly flat. The outer
condyle has its margin nearly semi-circular below, and its
external face regularly concave. The inner condyle has a very
short antero-posterior diameter. The trochlear groove is deep-
est near its external margin, where there is a faint narrow
pnt This specimen indicates a bird about the size of a
uriew.
Measurements.
Transverse diameter of distal end of tibia in front,.- ---- De Ween
a nsverse diameter below, - ---------------7-77777777 62
idth of trochlear groove on posterior face, ~---------~ 5°
tero-posterior diameter of outer condyle,..---- ----- Ss
Antero-posterior diameter of inner condyle, ------------ .
Width of supra-tendinal bridge, .-...-------------- 2 28
Width of opening below bridge, -----------. -------->-
258 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Birds.
This unique fossil was found by Mr. G. M. Keasbey, of the
Yale party, in September last, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
Aletornis gracilis, sp. nov.
A small aquatic bird, about the size of a Woodcock, is oe
sented in our Wyoming collections by the proximal end o
humerus in excellent preservation, and probably by some me
important remains. The species thus indicated may be placed
provisionally in the genus Aletornis, until the discovery of ad-
ditional material determines more closely its affinities. fare:
the head, on the paren side, the surface is concave.
Measurements.
Greatest diameter of proximal end of humerus, - - -- - ---- 114
Greatest Seer of articutae ead 7. nase ws tA 84
Loast Giimeter. | oo a a a ee 3°6
Least Y See of shaft below hend,. 22.3.2... tcc 3°6
The specimen here described was found by Mr. H. D. Zieg-
ler, in September last, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
Aletornis bellus, sp. nov.
A diminutive species, about half the bulk of that last -
scribed, and which may for the present be referred to the sam —
genus, is indicated by the distal end of a tarso-metatarsal, an
os tee by a few other isolated and less ween o ay spect-
tarso-metatarsal is similar in its esse features
to the same bone in the Killdeer plover (Higialiti a
Suge and about the same size. The outer, or fourth, meta
sal element, however, is more produced distally, and its ex
ed is obliquely compressed. The trochlear groove in on
distal end of the third metatarsal is not quite in the middle,
outer articular surface being ee the larger.
Measuremen
Transverse diameter eee of distal end of tarso-.
metatarsal, sed
oof
O' el6 oR 6 8 Cee C8 ee 4.8 8 6 ee Ee Se. ee
Aunuboneunes aca of fourth metatarsal at —_— end, 3° :
Transverse Soe of shaft through lower foramen P
found
s at present representing this scans were
Set ‘ee LTE, at Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming, in September last.
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Birds. 259
Uintornis lucaris, gen. et sp. nov.
A small bird evidently belonging to the Scansores, and
gooly related to the Wood
deep groove. The shaft above the union of the three elements
is broad, and nearly flat in front. On the posterior side it is
somewhat concave. The foramen between the third and fourth
metatarsals is small, and the groove above it quite narrow.
Measurements.
pansverse diameter of tarso-metatarsal at distal end,.... 4°8
r €ro-posterior diameter of third metatarsal,.......+++ 2°
orth CHOIMNCECT, ca deck erin esses ee oe ete doe if
Wiane posterior diameter of fourth metatarsal,......--- 3°
idth of shaft through lower foramen,...----+++++++++ 35
ae type specimen of this species was found by the writer,
t autumn, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
Catarractes affinis, sp. Nov.
evidently a nearly related species. The F eet aoe ae
: : iffers m the
oo Ng ae bone of that species in several particulars.
the tendons of the triceps mu: unequal size in the
being much the
scle of
pero species, the one on the ulnar side
arger,
Measurements.
Length of entire humerns,...---+2---sreer ee 95° ™™-
Greatest diameter of proximal end,...--+-++++*: ins
Transverse diameter of distal end,.... -- a given aa’ 10°
* This Journal, vol. xlix, p. 213, March, 1870.
260 0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Birds.
Greatest —_—— of articular head, ..0.0. 000 sucess cece 14:3
Least dia We eke a a ic hs ws oe tae (RS 72
Greatest diamete OF seate RE WIS, 1065 ios OS geese es bs
Pease Cinteter sk os os Gg Ss hs ee ee 4-2
This ee specimen, which belongs to the Aaa of
Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, was found by Dr. A. ©.
Hamlin, in the Post-pliocene clay near Bangor, Mane
Meleagris altus.
Meleagris altus Marsh. Proceedings rece Academy,
1870, p. 11, and American Naturalist, vol. iv 17. (Meleagris
superbus Cope, Synopsis Extinct Batrachia, ete., p. 239.
This species, which was based on portions of four skeletons,
soy eancd most nearly in size and general features the eae
wild Turkey of North America (Meleagris gallopavo Linn.).
may readily be distinguished, however, by its more oe
the wild ran in patale besa doar igen and in aoe
the shaft straighter, or less sigmoid. The coracoid is elonga
and its lower end expanded ave S Its pneumatic
han i
is erectile slender and Pelngaied The hypotarsus, a —
canal, as in the adult suicag and onan glinnceon birds. “The
bridge, if it existed in an ossified — ondition, was ley
Measurements. ase
Length (approximate) of humerus,...... .++++++++++ 159°5
Greatest diameter of proximal end,.......+-++++-+++++ 42°
Greatest diameter of distal end,...........+++ee+se0" 33°
Leugth of. e0rhboidss. . cee caen ets dan ose hoe ek 122°
Transverse diameter OF JOWGE GGG. von cc ees tence nee? 37°5
Length of tae ns ee 150°
Transverse diameter OF distal end. 4. 6.600 cee. s sess 31°
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Birds. 261
meen Of tibia, 2.656. SSeS eA ea 243° mm-
Transverse diameter of distal end,......+...+.-ee+0+5 18°
Length of tarso-metatarsal,..........seceecceetecees 176°5
Transverse diameter of proximal end,.......+++++++++ 23°
Distance from proximal end to spur,....+++-+++++++55 110:
The specimens here described were found in_the Post-
pliocene deposits of Monmouth County, New Jersey.
Meleagris celer, sp. nov.
the posterior face, where it is met by an external Si of sim-
ilar length. The tarso-metatarsal has the external ri
more ossified than in the larger species. The remains preserved
indicate a bird about half the bulk of JZ altus.
I oe: Measurements.
WEED Of tibia... 262s evn ssersarnrenrere ceennces ia
Greatest diameter of proximal end,.....-+++++++++++° 3
Transverse diameter of shaft at middle,........+++++++ 9°6
Transverse diameter of distal end,......-- se+erreee- 16°5
Antero-posterior diameter of outer condyle...--..---- 16°
Transverse diameter of proximal end of tarso-metatarsal, 1 4
2 .
\ntero-posterior diameter,....-+---++eeereceeeeteess
tT known specimens of the present s ies are from the
Post-pliocene of Monmouth County, New Jersey.
Grus proavus, Sp. NOV.
An extinct species of Crane, somewhat smaller than Grus
Canadensis Temm., is indicated in the collections of the Yale
differs essentially from it in
hot having the grooves for the coracoids meet on the median
ne. They are i separated from each other by a space
ve. e sternum
die than in C Can-
that species mainly in having the shaft less curved : in ot
respects the resemblance is close. :
262 E. &. Morse—Oviducts of Terebratulina.
Measurements.
Width of sternum between outer ends of coracoid grooves, 45°"
Width of sternum. at: middle, .3.....0.2:..iaccsre wwe v4 39°
Distance between coracoid grooves,.......+seeeeeeeere 5°
Length (approximate) of femur,...........ee+seeeees % 126°
Transverse diameter of shaft at middle,.............+.- 12°5
Transverse diameter of distal end,...........+++---0 .
The remains on which this species is established are likewise
from the Post-pliocene deposits of Monmouth County, New
Jersey.
Yale College, New Haven, August 28th, 1872.
Art. XXXIL.— On the Oviducts and Embryology of T erebratulina ;
by Epwarp S. Morsg, Ph.D. With Plate IIL
for the third time, and now my heretofore fruitless endeavors
have been met with success.
The results of these observations were communicated at the
they assumed the form of a deeply annulated embryo, compos
of four distinct rings, which hada marked vermian contraction
be attaching
themselves by the caudal segment. During the latter part ©
E. S. Morse—Oviduets of Terebratulina. 263
ap. J have, however, nearly three hundred outlines of the
embryos during their development, a few of which are presented
. this brief communication. Next year it is hoped a com-
ete history of their development will be made, as many things
ave been observed in their proper management of which I shall
profit in my next attempt.
a.
gency ing ERhynchonella alive, to note the ciliary action in the
iducts driving currents outward, and to establish the correct-
Protruded. A jar of specimens dredged b PEG
ged by Dr. P. P. Carpenter.
who kindly accompanied me from Montreal, was left standing
ae its arms their entire length from the partially opened
els. I*poured the sea water carefully out, and suddenly
poured in ¢ ie strongest alcohol, and the specimen is now pre-
selban in this exerted position.
re ohn E. Gavit, Esq., and Dr. Thomas T. Sabine of New York,
z owed all my examinations at Eastport. In a forthcoming
oo of the Boston Society of Natural History all the details
these examinations will be given.
EXPLANATION OF Puate III.
tals.
Figure ee Glandular organs supposed to be testes, seen from below.
2. Portion of left oviduct with its relation to the supposed testis. a, ovi-
. due , its external opening. «¢ i
3. Left oviduct as it appears from the front through perivisceral wall. a,
ovid b, its external opening. c, in ning. d, ovaries in
pallial membranes. , left divaricator muscle. F.¥.F. Eggs entering,
w passing through, and escaping from oviduct.
4. Right oviduct seen from behind. a, intestine. 64, anterior ocelusor
s. ¢, oviduct. d, internal mouth of oviduct held in the ilio-
parietal band “Jike a landing net in its loop.” ¢, ilio-parietal band
ecessory heart of Hancock.
ine is thrown into folds, in consequence of the
traction of the outer wall of intestine,
Figs. 6 and
Figs Embryology.
1 to 12, showing various stages of embryo.
8, partial side views.
Figs. 7 and 11, side views.
- 12, partial end view.
Fig. 1
264 A. M. Mayer—Erratum of the Errata.
Art. XXXIIL—Erratum of the Errata, or “‘ A Few Millions ;”
by ALFRED M. Mayer, Ph.D.
I am indebted to Mr. A. Cowper Ranyard, of London, for
calling public attention to errors existing in the illustrative ap-
pendix to a research entitled “ Acoustical Experiments, &c.,
which article of mine the editor of Natwre honored with a re-
publication in his journal, on May 9, 1872.
The existence of these errors has been known to me since a
few weeks after the original publication of my paper; but as
they did not affect in the least the subject prom of the
rect calculation
185,300 miles= 298,212,000,000 millimeters _
0005895 millimeter
and 5,058,700,000,000,000 (Mr. R.’s result) minus 505,870,000,
000,000 (Mr. M.’s result) gives Mr. Ranyard 4,552,830,000,000,-
000 tremors.
Thus it appears that both Mr. Ranyard and myself can com:
mit errors in simple arithmetic ; but I am sure that our mutu
friends will not attribute them to want of sufficient ere
wate 7 soi as ’
do not wish Mr. Ranyard’s errors in any way to extenuate MY.
own greater negligence, which has gr pls: §
my paper; containing, as it does, “some strange numerical
errors, which perhaps it will be well to point out, lest some
of Le readers should make use of the numbers given at te
end of the paper without previously testing them.” (A. ©. R.)
I will, therefore, ask my readers to substitute the following for
the second paragraph under the heading of =
Bs mseaw cei Relations in the eaperiments and analogical facts
he phenomena of light.
* See Nature, June 20, 1872, p. 142.
E. W. Hilgard—Geology of the Southwest. 265
We will now examine the analogical phenomena in the case
of light. Let fork No. 1, giving 256 vibrations a second, stand
for 508,730,000,000,000 vibrations a second; which will be the
number of vibrations made by the ray D, of the spectrum, if
we cag A 300,000 kilometers per second as the velocity of
light. Then fork No. 8 will represent 504,750,000,000,000 vibra-
tions per second; which latter give a wave-length ‘0000048
millimeter longer than that of D, and belong toa ray removed
from D,, toward the red end of the spectrum, by eight times
the distance which separates D, from D, We saw that fork
No. 8, giving 254 vibrations a second, had to move toward
the ear with a velocity of 8°784 feet to give the note produced
by 256 vibrations per second, emanating from a fixed fork; so,
if a star, which only sends forth those rays which vibrate
504,750,000,000,000 times a second, should move toward the
eye with a velocity of 2,442 kilometers, or 1,517 miles, its color
would change to that given when D, emanates from a stationary
Soda-flame,
Art, XXXIV.— On some points in the Geology of the South-
west; by E. W. Hitearp, of the University of Mississtpp
THE third annual Report of the Geological Survey of
Louisiana, by Prof. F. ¥, Sopiina, contains a number of
statements and discussions controverting, apparently at least,
Some of the facts and views heretofore published by me,
especially as regards the quaternary history of the Mississipp1
Valley and Gulf of Mexico. While some of the points made
by mty respected friend are based merely upon misunderstand-
ings, there are others which result from material differences in
Mi ec ee of facts, and as such require notice at my
ands,
As regards the inadmissibility of Prof. Hopkins’s conjecture
that the Labrador current may have been instrumental in dis-
tributing the drift over the Mississippi Valley, I have little to
Say that could add to the cogency of ana’s remarks on
€ same subject, in the August number of this Journal.
The southern drift bears everywhere the character of a
deposit formed by “fresh water in a state of violent flow,
and devoid, or nearly so, of animal | 2 I dl
stated, on the strength of an array of evidence against whic
oF stratigraphical fact. For the origin of
hold myself responsible; but I must demur
Am, Jour. pogeéea Sertes, Vou. IV, No. 22—Ocr., i
1
266 E. W. Hilgard—Geology of the Southwest.
unqualified statements, that the drift “must date from the
eriod of depression,” and that ‘‘ during a long period after the
deposition of the drift the land stood at about its present level,
” » If, -as'Peot
mM
form deposits with the wavy stratification of river alluvium, an
alone produce such structure; and, if so, the Gulf shore must
have been elevated to the extent of at least 450 feet above its
present level, at the time the Calcasieu drift was deposited.t
Moreover, the Calcasieu profilest show most convincingly the
existence of ridges of denudation at the drift surface, as well as
beneath it; and, similarly, subterranean ridges of drift mate-
rial are frequently struck in wells on the Mississippi coast-t
The drift materials are, equally, the last thing so far found
beneath the Port Hudson clays in the Mississippi bottom ;—to
what extent they have filled up that ancient trough, future
borings must determine.
I cannot, therefore, see on what grounds Prof. Hopkins as-
sumes that the erosion of the drift surface took place while the
land stood “ nearly” at its present level. If, Pe) expect, drift
vel should be found underlying the strata of the New Or
eans well, the minimum elevation of the Gulf coast, during
and even after the Drift period, would be increased by several
hundred feet. And I cannot refrain from once more calling
attention to the obvious difference between the chemical status
of the stratified drift of the South, and that of Illinois and In-
iana. In the latter, lignitized trees and layers of muck are
abundant, indicating submersion at a comparatively recent
riod; while the “orange sand” of the Southwest, as hereto-
fore repeatedly stated by me, as a rule contains nothing that
eapable of further oxidation or solution by atmospheric ar
cl unless it be silex. Such complete peroxidation a?
lixiviation, the effects of which have largely extended into
erlying formations, || unquestionably indicate a lo sub-
aérial exposure, from which the Northwestern strati
was in a great measure exempt.
* This Journal, November, 1869, p. 335. Ibid, p. 344.
$ Misa, Report, 1860, pp. 28 and 29. P ition Rep. 1860, p. 23-
L. W. Hilgard—Geology of the Southwest. 267
As regards the later formations, I note that the propriety of
substituting Dana’s prior name of ‘Champlain period” by tha
of “Bluff period,” as proposed and carried out by Prof, Hopkins,
Stems to me at least doubtful. A descriptive name should at
least give the predominant and essential character of the greater
part of the formations concerned. That Swallow’s name, as
applied to the Loess, is preéminently characteristic, no one that
nows that formation, as invariably exhibited on the Mississippi
and its great tributaries, will deny; while, apart from the Port
Hudson bluff itself, few, probably, besides Prof. Hopkins and
myself, know of any prominent example of bluffs formed by the
ort Hudson strata—a formation as positively characterized by
Plateaus and prairies, from Pensacola to the Rio Grande, as the
oess is by “bluffs.” As for the Yellow Loam and its equiv-
alents, spread like a blanket over the whole country, up hill
pe carn, it is peculiarly apt, ¢f tn stu, to be absent from b/uf?
S
The name apart, I am constrained to believe that, while appar-
ently differing widely from me in his interpretation of the strata
penetrated in the New Orleans artesian well of 1856, he never-
theless agrees, substantially, in all but the use of a name.
when, on p. 185, he speaks of the Port Hudson strata as “the
delta formed by the Mississippi, from the end of the Drift
eriod to the beginning of the era of the Loess,” he merely
ers from me in conferring the name of the ‘ Mississippi’
"pon that broad expanse of swamps, marshes, and lagoons
Which then filled the trough remaining after the Drift period,
and through which the continental waters made their way as
t they might. In this broad sense, I cheerfully admit the
Whole of the strata underlying New Orleans to be “ Mississipp!
delta, deposits.” Similar ones, however, were at that time
forming all along the northern and western Gulf border, con-
Stituting the “blue clay bottom ;” which, is as well known on
the coast of Alabama and Texas, as is the sudden seaward
Slope at a variable distance from the main land, that Prof.
Hopkins erroneously supposes to be peculiar to the mouths of
the Mississippi, and to be formed by river deposit.
_But while the modern delta deposits proper everywhere ex-
hibit an abundance of drift-wood particles, and a rapid alterna-
tion of character corresponding to the frequent rise and fall of
the river: the deeper deposits of the New Orleans well lack both
these characteristics, bemg remarkably uniform through consid-
erable thicknesses of material.* — the — * far as pre-
viously known are of livi cies; but so far as [ am aware,
nothing else is expected of asiueenry marine beds. Yet the
fact that three or four of the species are not now known to be
* See “ Report on the Age of the Delta,” in Rep. U. S. Eng. Dept. for 1870.
268 E. W. Hilgard—Geology of the Southwest.
living in the Gulf or elsewhere, conveys a hint that when these
“delta” deposits were made, the present state of things had not
come to pass. From the somewhat arbitrary standpoint of some
paleontologists, the strata in question would even have to come
under the head of marine Pliocene!
confess, also, to a violent distrust of the chemical method of
identifying formations, as applied by my friend to deposits so
exceedingly variable in their nature, and over such extensive
areas. Had he gone to New Orleans instead of Arkansas, he
might have found in the “drove wells” of that city about as
eat a variety of waters, as the two extremes he refers to as
characterizing the Port Hudson and river deposit waters,
“in eae That ‘‘at various points between Baton Rouge
and Arkansas, the alluvium is over a hundred feet in depth,
I have not the slightest doubt; for the same is true of the
the proof intended to be conveyed, that such is the least
average depth of the alluvium. All direct stratigraphical
observations heretofore made have led the observers to a con-
ess coarse sand, but modified somewhat, in accordance with the
nature of the underlying strata,+ in Louisiana as well as else-
where. ‘This is the case even where it is in situ; but where, %
in the case mentioned by him as occurring on Sicily Island &.
177), it is merely a talus, commingled with the other materials
furnished by the degradation of the hills, it of course will
‘changed according to the nature and amount of the admixture.
I doubt that there is any Yellow Loam to be found én situ oP
ee Island. :
The fine, more or less indurated silts, forming perpendicular
walls when eroded, to which Prof. Hopkins refers, are clearly an-
terior in time, and distinct from the Yellow Loam proper ; aS may
be seen at Port Hudson itself, and at numerous points eo
the edge of the Loess region in Mississippi, where a na
transition into the Loess proper is frequently observable. It 1s
* See Humphrey's and Abbot’s Report on the Mississippi river; this Journal,
December, 1871, p. 402; Proceed. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1871, p. 252.
+ Miss. Rep. 1870, p. 197, et al.
¢ Miss. Rep. 1860, pp. 319-20, and 198, $334.
E. W. Hilgard— Geology of the Southwest. 269
Calcasieu pine-flats and “ Bay Galls;” or the as ones of the
was still sub i i hie oe ee
‘agp substantially the same even in this latitude, is shown
y its outliers on the Five Islands, where (e. g., at Weeks’
2g at work since the deposition of the Loam ; :
find the geological place of the Loam oceupied by materials
= ing not the least resemblance to its usual facies. Such is
€ case, e. g., on the sandy uplands of south-east Mississippl,
tions on the Gulf border has manifestly taken place. If a slice
200 feet in thick-
* This Jour., Jan., 1869, p. 80. Miss. Rep., p. 198, $335.
t Miss. Rep, p. 304, pane j tia, pp. 198-99.
170 Davenport—Chemical Investigation of some
ness, and known to extend through six degrees of longitude
with a remarkable uniformity of character, may not speak for
itself, we shall have to suspend our discussions of a large por-
tion of the geology of the globe.
owever, I am in possession of data and specimens from
Texas, sufficient to show the approximate correctness of the
outline given in my “Map of the Mississippi Embayment,” as
well as the close correspondence of the character of the forma-
tion in that State, to that exhibited by it in the Anacoco region,
in western Louisiana. “i
To the two localities of Cretaceous outcrops mentioned by
Prof. Hopkins, I have to add another, viz: at King’s Salt Works,
in Bienville; where a genuine “rotten limestone” forms the
bed of Bayou Castor.
University of Miss., August, 1872.
Arr. XXXV.— Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of
Yale College. No, XXV.—Results of a Chemical Investigation
of some Points in the Manufacture of ‘‘ Malleable [ron ;” by
Russett W. Davenport, Ph.B.
THE annealing process employed in making malleable is
consists, as is well known, in packing the castings with oxide
each annealing, show what influence the process bas upo? em
It will be seen the iron us
ess. The annealed
n broken were up to the average toughness ©
‘malleable iron,” and their strength did not materially decreas?
after the second annealing.
castings whe
‘
I. Casting No.1. Before annealing.
i 2.
verage.
Silicon, "44 "45 “445
Phosphorus, "29 34 315
Manganese, "524 534 529
Sulphur, 054 059
064 F
Total Carbon, 3°44 3°42 3°43
points in the Manufacture of Malleable Iron. 271
Il. Casting No.1. After first annealing,
Ae 2.
Average
Silico 40 436 38
Phosphorus, 323 “330 327
Manganese, 5 585
Sulphur, 062 072 "067
Total Carbon, 1°58 1:49 1°51
Il. Casting No.1. After second annealing.
5. Average
1 : 447 451 “449
Phosphorus, 31 "32 “315
Manganese, 51 *b4 525
Iphur, 086 081 "083
Total Carbon, below 0°10 per cent.
IV. Casting No.2. Before annealing.
E 2.
me Average
Silicon, 59 58 ‘585
Phosphorus, *29 27 280
Manganese, 55 62 585
Sulphur, ‘d “10 ‘105
Total Carbon, 3°50 3°43 3°48
V. Casting No.2. After first annealing.
i. 2. verage.
ilicon 16 612 “614
Phosphorus, -290 291 290
Manganese, 619 ‘613 616
ulphur, 152 “143 “147
Total Carbon, “48 eel 43
VI. Casting No.2. After second annealing.
Z. 2. Tage.
ilicon, 15 613 “614
Phosphorus, -29 30 -295
Manganese, 59 56 575
Sulphur, 161 1638 162
a From the above analyses the following conclusions may be
Tawn; first, that the silicon, phosphorus and manganese are
h th
— castings before annealing, containing 3} per cent of com-
med carbon, showed, on breaking. a white fracture, and were
272 Davenport—Chemical Investigation on some
too hard to be cut by a drill; after the first annealing an inter-
esting change showed itself in the fracture; a whitish surface
extended in about ,; of an inch on all sides, surrounding a
dark core of dull black color; the line of change from the light
to the dark was quite distinct, and the whole was easily cut by
a drill. A portion of this white outside layer was filed off and
the carbon determined to be present only in traces, while
analyses II. and V. show the presence of a considerable amount
of carbon, when a sample of the entire cross section was taken.
The black core was noticeably smaller in the case of casting
No. 2 than in casting No. 1, which accounts for the small
amount of total carbon in analysis V. After the second anneal-
events only a reduced, that which remains is by the
an — slow cooling changed in its state of
he tas carbon; for where the iron before annealing is white
and very hard, after annealing it shows.a dark fracture and 18
technically called, gave a dirty green color to the solution and
ess of the iron owing to the p
amount of silicon, phosphorus or sulphur; but it also must
pownts in the Manujacture of Malleable [ron. 273.
Further analyses were made of another specimen, before and
after its annealing, which when, annealed and broken was brittle,
and showed the crystalline structure to some extent.
VIL. Before annealing.
:
EB Average.
Silicon, 577 ‘580 579
Phosphorus, "425 "423 424
Manganese, 154 117 "165
Sulphur, “116 112 114
Total Carbon, 3-277 3°285 3°281
VIL. After annealing.
1; 2. Average.
Silicon, 560 babe 60
Phosphorus, "46 “44 450
Manganese, 136 158 “147
Sulphur, "113 Sune 113
Total Carbon, below 0°10 per cent.
The weakness in this case may perhaps be partially caused
by the large amount of phosphorus present,but the next two
analyses made of specimens, which when broken after being
annealed were very brittle and showed a most decided crystal-
ine structure, go to prove that this phenomenon of crystalliza-
Hon cannot be attributed to the presence of an excessive
amount of silicon, phosphorus or sulphur.
TX. Once annealed, large erystalline Saces in fracture.
1. .
Average.
Sili “44 “46 450
Phosphorus, 267 266 "266
Manganese, "264 "182 "223
Sulphur, 145 133 139
Carbon, below 0°10 per cent.
X. Twice annealed, crystalline faces extended entirely across the
Sracture,
jh Average.
Silicon, 585 593 589
Phosphorus, 213 212 "212
anganese, "149 158 153
Sulph 092 118 ‘105
Carbon, none or slight trace.
The above analyses to seem afford no explanation of this erys-
talline structure, and the cause of it can only be determined by
careful experimenting and by the comparison of a large num
of trustworthy anal : :
€ next analysis was made of an annealed casting which
When bent sliciwadl a greater degree of toughness than common.
274 =F. B. Meek—Descriptions of new Silurian Fossils.
It was of circular section 4} inch in diameter, and was bent cold
through an angle of 90° without showing fracture.
XI. 1 2. Average.
Silicon, "717 “722 "719
Phosphorus, 206 "202 204
Manganese, "273 "268 *270
Sulphur, 035 037 "036
Total Carbon, 1°840 1°844 1°842
From this analysis it may be inferred that the silicon may run
as high as 0-7 per cent without effecting the toughness of the
annealed product, while it also tends to show, what might cer-
tainly be expected, that an iron low in phosphorus and sulphur
is most suitable for making malleable iron.
n regard to the chemical processes used in making the above
analyses, in most of the important points I followed the
methods for the analysis of iron and steel, given in the last
American edition of Fresenins, and I departed from these meth-
ods only in such details as Prof. Allen, of the Sheffield Scien-
tifie School Laboratory, kindly recommended. All the spect
mens examined except, No. XI, were obtained from Messrs. 0.
B. North & Co., of New Haven, whose courtesy in specially
preparing and re-annealing the iron for this investigation 1S
gratefully acknowledged. :
es
Art. XXX VI.—Deseriptions of a few new species, and one new
genus, of Silurian Fossils, from Ohio ;* by F. B. MEEK.
PROTASTER ? GRANULIFERUS Meek.
Disk small, apparently circular; rays rather slender, and of
unknown length. Dorsal surface of disk and rays covered y
an integument composed of innumerable minute graims 0
calcareous matter. Ventral side of disk not well exposed 1
furrow into two parts, the anterior one of which is very short,
and the posterior longer and marked by a minute pit at its
* These fossils are to be fully illustrated and described in the report of the Obio
F. B. Meek—Deseriptons of new Silurian Fossils. 275
Breadth of disk, about 0:48 inch; breadth of arms at their
0 inch.
belong to this species is very imperfect, being merely an incom-
plete disk, and the inner ends of the rays. It does not con-
po &, 18 Covered by an integument composed of a vast num
Ol very minute grains of calcareous matter, instead of distinct
establishment of a new genus or sub-genus for such forms, in
Which case the name Alepidaster might be applied to the group,
which would probably also include Protaster gregarius of Meek
and Worthen
T have intentionally avoided, in the foregoing description,
the use of the terms ambulacral and adambulacral pieces,
applied ow some in describing the arms of species of Protaster
é :
PALMASTER INcOoMPTUS M.
Small ; rays rather short, or only about once and a half as
long as their breadth at the inner ends, and rapidly tapering to
their outer extremities, which are more or less angular. isk
equaling in breadth the length of the rays. Dorsal side of rays
Composed each of three rows of about nine pieces* each, that
* In some of the rays these appear, but this is probably due to the exposure of
ue of the marginal rows of the rays by oblique pressure.
276 F. B. Meck—Descriptions of new Silurian Fossils.
are wider than long, and increase rather rapidly in size inward
to the margin of the disk, which is made up of smaller pieces ;
a few very minute pieces apparently sometimes occur between
the rows on the dorsal side of the rays. Surface of dorsal
pieces a little roughened, but apparently without spines.
Madreporiform piece rather small, a little oval, or almost ar
cular, nearly flat, and marked by very fine, irregularly inter-
rupted radiating striz. Ventral side unknown.
Greatest breadth across, between the extremities of rays on
opposite sides, 0°90 inch; length of rays, 0°35 inch ; breadth of
same at inner ends, about 0°22 inch; length of madreporiform
pieces, 0°08 inch; breadth of same, 0-07 inch.
This species seems to be related to P. matutinus Hall, but
want the well-defined madreporiform pieces seem in the species
The only specimen of this species I have seen is firmly
attached to a foliated expansion of coral, so as to conceal the
ventral side entirely. It was evidently lying dead on its back,
on the bottom of the sea, when the coral commenced growin
.
upon its ventral side; and afterward the coral not only covere
ties of its rays.
Locality and position—Cincinnati group of the Lower
Silurian, at Cincinnati, Ohio. Mr. Dyer’s collection. os
Note.—A fine star-fish recently sent to me by Mr. Dyer, from
the Cincinnati rocks, presents many features indicating close rela-
F. B. Meek—Descriptions of new Silurian Fossils. 277
tions to Paleaster granulosus of Hall; and yet a critical compari-
son with his description (he has not yet published a figure of that
Species), leads me to think it most probably distinct. It has about
the same proportional length and breadth of rays; but instead
-eight marginal and
le
; s
thirty-two adambulacral pieces on each side—the number of
to call it Paleaster speciosu
RHYNCHONELLA NEGLECTA, var. SCOBINA.
Shell rather small, sub-trigonal, compressed, or sometimes in
TS ite gibbous, with the mesial fold very
prominent and narrow. Dorsal valve bearing on the mesial
fold four plications, the middle two of which are more prot
one of which latter occupies
each provided with about
278 F. B. Meek—Descriptions of new Silurian Fossils.
incurved, projecting moderately beyond that of the other valve.
Surface ornamented by fine marks of growth, and numerous
minute, distinct, regularly disposed granulations. :
Length of one of the largest, and most gibbous specimens,
0°55 inch; breadth of do., 0°50 inch; convexity of same, 0°53
inch. Other individuals of near the same length and breadth
in the number and arrangement of the plications, with A. neglecta
Hall, from New York, Niagara and Clinton groups. But if
that shell has been correctly figured and described, from well-
preserved specimens, it must be distinct from this, as there are
no surface granulations illustrated in the figures or mentioned
in the description of the New York species; while they are
quite distinctly and beautifully defined on those before me from
Ohio ork Niagara fossils are usually found in
a good state of preservation, it is very improbable that such a
character could have escaped attention in 2. neglecta. 1 there:
fore feel strongly inclined to regard the shell under considera-
tion as a distinct species; but as it agrees so closely in other
characters with R. neglecta, have concluded to view it, for the
resent, as a variety of that shell, under the name scobind,
which can be retained for it should it prove, as I think it will,
to be a distinct species. a
It is possible that the internal characters of the species will
be found to differ generically from those of Rhynchonella, 4
distinctly prided surface being unusual in that genus.
Locality and position.—Clinton group, Dayton, Ohio. Found
by Prof. Orton.
PLEUROTOMARIA (SCALITES ?) TROPIDOPHORA M.
F. B. Meek—Descriptions of new Silurian Fossils, 279
widens rapidly forward, though there is no defined revolving
band at the angle.
Length or height, 0.55 inch ; breadth about 0.50 inch.
This shell possesses some of the characters of both Pleuro-
fomaria and Scalites. In general appearance it is most like
; se
rapidly forward from, the angle of the volutions. Specifically,
this shell is related to Plewrotomaria selecta of Billings, from
Which it differs in having its strie of growth nearly obsolete,
and in wanting the revolving angle just below the suture, seen
in that species. on oe
Locality and position. —Cincinnati group, at Cincinnati, Ohio.
Mr. A. S. Miller’s collection.
Genus Dicraniscus* M.
Shell inequivalve, hinge line straight, rather long, hinge pro-
vided with teeth and socket
deltidium ; beak imperforate ; interior without dental or other
aming, or processes of any kind; muscular impressions un-
known. Ventral valve without a well developed area, but
ee and on each side of the base of this with a prominent
the hinge. Shell substance very thick about the hinge, and
showing an im erfectly fibrous structure when broken, the fibers
béing arranged at right angle to the surface of the valves. _
T have had specimens of this remarkable shell under consid-
eration for nearly a year; but have been waiting for others to
be found that would show its characters more clearly, all of
those seen bein entary. Somewhat better specimens
have recently been found by Prof. Orton, but none nearly en-
re have yet been discovered. Those now at hand, however,
* Dimin. of dixpavoc, a two pronged fork; in allusion to the long bifid cardinal
280 F. B. Meek—Descriptions of new Silurian Fossils.
give the means of making out its generic and specific characters
with some degree of detail, though we yet want specimens show-
ing the exact form of the entire shell, and the muscular impres-
sions of the ventral valve.
dium sometimes covering the upper part of the foramen. __
It is probably more nearly related to Stricklandinia of Bill-
ings; but on comparing some of the specimens sent to him
Prof. Orton, Mr. Billings writes that he thinksitentirely distinct
from his genus, which he says has no such cardinal process.
The ventral valve of our shell also differs in having no trace
of the triangular internal chamber, seen under the beak of
Stricklandinia.
Dicraniscus Orronr M.
Shell truncato-suboval, or suborbicular, with front narrowly
rounded; hinge-line less than the greatest breadth. ioe
moe
erately deep mesial sinus not extending to the beak; cardinal
ent, or at least more so than that of the other valve, and more
incurved ; area wanting or very narrow and obscure; cardinal
er,
urrowed on their posterior sides above. Surface smooth.
as the dorsal; because I could not understand how so very
CH. F. Peters—Discovery of a New Planet. 281
fore, not until Prof. Orton found a broken specimen with
portions of the two valves united, and showing this process in
place, that I was aware that the dorsal valve has its beak so
incurved as to give this cardinal process an oblique forward
direction within the other valve. Hven then n, however, it seems
to touch the bottom of the ventral valve.
The specific name is given in honor of Prof. Edward Orton,
who discovered the only specimens of the species known
Locality and eal —Summit of the Clinton group, near
_ 28e
by Mr. ay 7 “Miller of that ci ty, there are two exam
Orthis, agreeing in form and general appearance with O. plicatelia,
but differing in bei gens @ larger, and in havin
ith the beak of
are
see in plicatella as andl pte foun TS giv
Shell a esto appearance that leads me to to think i it will emai
be found to belong to an entisecribed species. As I know nothing
Arr. XXXVIL—Discovery of a New Planet; by 0. H. F.
Perers, From a wer Nod Litchfield Observatory, Hamil-
ton College, August 2
Lasr night another new planet came into my view. It is
tather bright, and about the 10th magnitude; the following
Positions were dete bene 5
1872, B. c. ug t a a) é ou)
8
Aug. 23, 12 98 6 2291 .2959 —T7 18 288 (10 comp.)
1392 49 92912164 —7 18 42:3 ( 5 comp)
Whence its daily motion is inferred to aA Pat 51s in iene
*Scension, and 6’ in declination toward the south.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tummp Serres, Vor. IV, No. 22. paty oo
18
282 Prof. Gray's Address before the
Art. XXXVIII—Address before the American Association at tts
recent meeting in Dubuque, Iowa; by Prof. Asa GRAY.
American Association at Dubuque. 283
Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range, and among them trees
which are the wonder of the world. As I stood in their shade,
in the groves of Mariposa and Calaveras, and again under the
canopy of the commoner redwood, raised on columns of such
majestic height and ample girth, it occurred to me that I could
not do better than to share with you, upon this occasion, some
of the thoughts which possessed my mind. In their develop-
ment they may perhaps lead us up to questions of considerable
Scientific interest.
I shall not detain you with any remarks (which would now
be trite) upon the size or longevity of these far-famed Sequoia
trees, or of the sugar pines, incense cedar, and firs associated
with them, of which even the prodigious bulk of the dominating
Sequoia does not sensibly diminish the grandeur. Although
Ho account and no photographic representation of either species
of the far-famed Sequoia trees gives any adequate impression of
their singular majesty—still less of their beauty—yet my inter-
est in them did not culminate merely nor mainly in considera-
tions of their size and age. Other trees in other parts of the
world may claim to be older. Certain Australian um trees
( Eucalypt:) are said to be taller. Some, we are told, rise so
Judge from the actual counting of the layers of several trees, no
Sequoia now alive can sensibly antedate the Christian era.
guishing appellations seems proper enough. But the tablets
of personal names which are affixed to many of them in the
venerable trunks so placarded has recorded in annual lines the
lifetime of the individual thus associated with it, one may ques-
Whether it be the man or the tree that is honored in the connec-
tion, probably either would live as long in fact and in memory
Without it,
284 Prof. Gray's Address before the
have none. The redwood—including in that name the two
species of “ big trees”—belongs to the general cypress family,
but is sud generis. Thus isolated systematically, and extremely
isolated geographically, and so wonderful in size and port, they
more than other trees suggest questions.
Were they created, thus local and lonely, denizens of Cali-
fornia only; one in limited numbers in a few choice spots on
the Sierra Nevada, the other along the Coast Range from the
Bay of Monterey to the frontiers of Oregon? Are they veri
table Melchisedecs, without pedigree or early relationship, and
possibly fated to be without descent? —
r are they now coming upon the stage (or rather were they
coming but for man’s interference) to play a part in the future?
Or are they remnants, sole and scanty survivors of a race that
“to the manor born,” but are self-invited intruders, we mu
needs abandon the notion of any primordial and absolute adap-
tation of plants and animals to their habitats which may stand :
in lieu of explanation, and so preclude our inquiring any fo
American Association at Dubuque. 285
”7
Separate groves may be reckoned upon the fingers, and the
trees of most of them have been counted, except near their
Southern limit, where they are said to be more copious.
Species limited in individuals holds its existence by a precarious
enure ; and this has a foothold only in a few sheltered spots,
of a happy mean in temperature and locally favored with mois-
ture in summer. Even there, for some reason or other, the
Plnes with which they are associated (Pinus Lambertiana and P.
Ponderosa), the firs (Abies grandis and A. amabilis), and even the
Mcense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens a great advantage,
and, though they strive in vain to emulate their size, wholly
verpower the Sequoias in number. ‘To him that hath shall
be given.” The force of numbers eventually wins. At least
in the commonly visited groves Sequoia gigantea is invested in
lts last stronghold, can neither advance into more exposed posi-
tions above, nor fall back into drier and barer ground below,
hor hold its own in the long run where it is, under present con-
ditions ; and a little further drying of the climate, which must
Ouce have been much moister than now, would precipitate its
doom. Whatever the individual longevity, certain if not speedy
18 the decline of a race m which a high death-rate afflicts the
young. Seedlings of the big trees occur not rarely, indeed,
286 Prof. Gray's Address before the
[=]
and its accessibility, that, judging the future by the past, it is
not likely, in its primeval growth, to outlast its rarer fellow-
species.
ily man preserves and disseminates as well as destroys.
The species will probably be indefinitely preserved to science,
and for ornamental and other uses, in its own and other lands;
and the more remarkable individuals of the present day are
likely to be sedulously cared for, all the more so as they
become scarcer.
Our third question remains to be answered: Have these
famous Sequoias played in former times and upon a larger
covered by glaciers, these Sequoias must have occupied other
sss if, as there is reason to believe, they then existed 10
e land.
I have said that the redwoods have no near relatives in bs
<
American Association at Dubuque. - 287
Ow species of the same type, especially when few, and the
type peculiar, are, in a general way, associated geographically,
2 é, inhabit
region. Where it is not so, where near relatives are separated,
These four trees, sole representatives of their tribe, dwell almost
Some interesting facts may come out by comparing generally
e
then, first, that there is another set of three or four
Peculiar trees, in this case of the yew family, which has just
Own out of the Alleghanies into its present limited southern
288 Prof Gray's Address before the
oS
of which China is a part, and Japan, as we shall see, the por-
tion most interesting to us. There is only one more species of
Torreya, and that is a companion of the redwoods in California.
It is the tree locally known under the name of the California
nutmeg. In this case the three are near brethren, species of
the same genus, known nowhere else than in these three
habitats.
, because they are of genera whic
common all round the northern hemisphere. Leaving these
out of view, the noticeable point is that the vegetation of Cali- 3
fornia is most strikingly unlike that of the Atlantic Umite@ =
States. They possess some plants, and some peculiarly Ame?
ican plants, in common,—enough to show, as I imagine, that the
difficulty was not in the getting from the one district to ™
American Association at Dubuque. 289
other, or into both from a common source, but in abiding there.
The primordially unbroken forest of Atlantic North America,
nourished by rainfall distributed throughout the year, is widely
separated from the western region of sparse and discontinuou
tree-belts of the same latitude on the western side of the con-
tinent, where summer rain is wanting or nearly so, by immense
treeless plains and plateaux of more or less aridity, traversed
by longitudinal mountain ranges of a similar character. Their
other lands, are mostly southward, on the Mexican plateau, or
Many as far south as Chili The same may be said of the
Plants of the intervening great plains, except that northward
290 Prof. Gray's Address before the
and in the subsaline vegetation there are some close alliances
with the flora of the steppes of Siberia. And along the crests
of high mountain ranges the arctic-alpine flora has sent south-
ward more or less numerous representatives through the whole
length of the country.
If we now compare, as to their flora generally, the Atlantic
Uhited States with Japan, Mandchuria, and Northern China,
2. e., Hastern North America with Eastern North Asia—half the
)
Mandchuria, along with many other peculiar plants divided be-
wo. ere are plants enough of the one region
wT
io)
=|
ct
7
9
=]
Qu
et
5
é
nm
—
2
0g
oO
re
_
=
fr)
a
°
=)
2)
ar)
NM
S
oe
ct
|
2)
S
pe
ie)
ioe)
pond
>
m
—
pe}
=F
QO
even most of the genera and species which are peculiar to North
erica as compared with Europe, and largely peculiar to
Atlantic North America as compared with the Californian region,
are also represented in Japan and Mandchuria, either by identi-
cal or by closely similar forms. The same rule holds on a more
northward line, although not so strikingly. If we compare the
plants, say of New England and Pennsylvania (lat. 45°—AT’)
with those of Oregon, and then with those of North
Asia, we shall find many of our own curiously repeated in the
latter, while only a small number of them can be traced along
the route even so far as the western slope of the Rocky Moun
tains. And these repetitions of Eastern American types 1?
Japan and neighboring districts are in all degrees of likeness:
character; sometimes the two would be termed marked vate
ties i they grew naturally in the same forest or in the same
region ; sometimes they are what the botanist calls re resentar
tive species, the one answering closely to the other, but wit
some differences regarded as specific; sometimes the two ar@
merely of the same genus or not quite that, but of a single or
very few species in each country,—when the point which mee =
ests us is that this eters limited type should occur in tw?
antipodal places and nowhere else.
American Association at Dubuque. 291
It would be tedious and except to botanists abstruse to
enumerate instances, yet the whole strength of the case depends
upon the number of such instances. I propose, therefore, if
the Association does me the honor to print this discourse, to
append in a note a list of the more remarkable ones. But I
would here mention two or three cases as specimens.
Our Rhus Toxicodendron or poison ivy, is very exactly re-
peated in Japan, but is found in no other part of the world,
although a species much like it abounds in California. Our
other poisonous Rhus (A. venenata), commonly called poison
dogwood, is in no way represented in Western America, but
has so close an analogue in Japan that the two were taken for
the same by Thunberg and Linneeus, who called them &. vernia.
ur northern fox-grape, Vitis Labrusca, is wholly confined to
~ the Atlantic States, except that it reappears in Japan and that
region.
The original Wistaria is a woody leguminous climber, with
showy blossoms, native to the Middle Atiantic States. The
other species which we so much prize in cultivation, W. Sinensis,
1s from China, as its name denotes, or perhaps only from Japan,
where it is certainly indigenous. a spies
ur yellow wood (Cladrastis) inhabits a very limited district
on the western slope of the Alleghanies. Its only and very
near relative (Maackia) is in Mandchuria. :
he Hydrangeas have some species in our Alleghany region.
All the rest belong to the Chino-Japanese region and its con-
tinuation westward. The same may be said of Philadelphus,
except that there are one or two mostly very similar in Cali-
ormia and Oregon.
Our blue cohosh (Caulophyllum) is confined to the woods of
ly b
es.
Another relative is our twin leaf, /efersonia, of the peg ars
I ought not to omit ginseng, the root so prized by the Chinese,
Which they obtained from their northern provinces and Mand-
292 Prof. Gray's Address before the
churia, and which is now known to inhabit Corea and Northern
Japan. The Jesuit Fathers identified the plant in Canada and
the Atlantic States, brought over the Chinese name by which
we know it, and established the trade in it which was for many
eige most profitable. The exportation of ginseng to China
as probably not yet entirely ceased. Whether the Asiatic and
the Atlantic American ginsengs are exactly of the same species
or not is somewhat uncertain, but they are hardly if at all dis-
tinguishable.
There is a shrub—Zllioitia—which is so rare and local that
it is known only at two stations on the Savannah river in
Georgia. It is of peculiar structure, and was without near rela-
tive until one was lately discovered in Japan (in Tripetaleia)
so like it as hardly to be distinguishablexcept by having the
parts of the blossom in threes instead of fours, a difference
which is not uncommon in the same genus or even in the same
species.
Suppose Eiliottia had happened to be collected only once, 4
good while ago, and all knowledge of the limited and obscure
locality was lost; and meanwhile the Japanese form came to
known. Such a case would be parallel with an actual one. A
specimen of a peculiar plant, Shortia galacifolia, was detected 10
the herbarium of the elder Michaux, who collected it (as bis
autograph ticket shows) somewhere in the high Alleghany
mountains more than eighty years ago. No one has seen the
living plant since, or knows where to find it, if haply it still
flourishes in some secluded spot. At length it is found 12
Japan; and I had the satisfaction of making the identification.”
One other relative is also known in Japan; and another still
unpublished has just been detected in Thibet.
Whether the Japanese and the Alleghanian plants are exactly
the same or not, it needs complete specimens of the two to
settle. So far as we know they are just alike, And even if
_ some difference were discerned between them, it would not ap-
preciably alter the question as to how such a result came 10
ass. Each and every one of the analogous cases I have beet
detailing—and very many more could be mentioned—ralses
the same question and would be satisfied with the same avswe!
These singular relations attracted my curiosity early 1 the
made (by Messrs. Williams and Morrow) during Commo’ ore
Perry's visit in 1853, and, ially, by Mr. Charles Wright
-
American Association at Dubuque. 298
this subject somewhat fully, and tabulated the facts within my
reach.*
This was before Heer had developed the rich fossil botany
of the arctic zone, before the immense antiquity of existing
species of plants was recognised, and before the publication
arwin's now famous volume on the Origin of Species
had introduced and familiarized the scientific world with those
how current ideas respecting the history and vicissitudes of
species, with which I attempted to deal in a tentative and
feeble way.
western sides of the continents—the one extreme, the other
mean—was doubtless even then established, so that the same
Species and the same sorts of species would be likely to secure
and retain foothold in the similar climates of Japan and the
Atlantic United States, but not in intermediate regions of dif-
ferent distribution of heat and moisture; so that different
Species of the same genus, as in Yorreya, or different genera of
le same group, as Redwood, Taxodium, and Glyptostrebus, or
different associations of forest trees, might establish themselves
Presup an ancestry in pliocene or still earlier times occu-
Pying the high northern regio nd it was thought that
occurrence of peculiarly North American genera In Kuro
* Mem. Amer. Acad., vol. vi.
294 Prof. Gray's Address before the
and local origination of each type, which is now almost uni-
versally taken for granted.
e remarkable facts in regard to the Eastern American and
Asiatic floras, which these speculations were to explain, have
since increased in number, more especially through the admira-
ble collections of Dr. Maximowictz in Japan and adjacent coun-
tries, and the critical comparisons he has made and is still
engaged upon.
I am bound to state that in a recent general work * by a dis-
tinguished botanist, Professor Grisebach of Gottingen, these
facts have been emptied of all special significance, and the
relations between the Japanese and the Atlantic United States
floras declared to be no more intimate than might be expected
from the situation, climate, and present opportunity of inter-
change. This extraordinary conclusion is reached by regarding
as distinct species all the plants common to both countries be-
tween which any differences have been discerned, although such
differences would probably count for little if the two inhabit
the same country, thus transferring many of my list of identical
to that of representative species, and then by simply eliminating
from consideration the whole array of representative species, |. €,
all cases in which the Japanese and the American plant are
not exactly alike. As if, by pronouncing the cabalistic word
species, the question were settled, or rather the greater part of
it remanded out of the domain of science; as if, while com:
these singular duplicates to be wondered at, indeed, but wholly
beyond the reach of inquiry.
Now the only known cause of such likeness is inheritance;
and as all transmission of likeness.is with some difference 12
individuals, and as changed conditions have resulted, as is well
known, in very considerable differences, it seems to me that if
of arctic fossil plants. These are confirmed and extend
through new investigations by Heer and Lesquereux, the resu!t
= to me by the latter. ee
The Taxodium, which everywhere abounds in the miocené
formations in Europe, has been specifically identified, first
by Goeppert, then by Heer, with our common cypress of the
* Die Vegetation der Erde nach ihrer klimatischen Anordnung, 1871.
thanks mainly to the researches of Heer upon ample collection
Its
American Association at Dubuque. 295
e
of Iceland, Spitzbergen, Greenland, Mackenzie river, an ska.
It is named 8. Langsdorfiz, but is pronounced to be very much
eS. sempervirens, our living redwood of the Californian coast,
and to be the ancient representive of it. Fossil specimens of a
similar, if not the same, species have been recently detected in the
two redwoods of California are the direct or collateral descen-
dants of the two ancient species which so closely resemble them.
The forests of the arctic zone in tertiary times contained at
least three other species of Seguota, as determined by their re-
mains, one of which, from Spitzbergen, also much resembles the
common redwood of California. Another, “ which appears to have
the commonest coniferous tree on Disco,” was common in
England and some other parts of Europe. So the Sequoias, now
remarkable for their restricted station and numbers, as well as
for their extraordinary size, are of an ancient stock; their
ancestors and kindred formed a large part of the forests which
flourished throughout the polar regions, now desolate and ice-
clad, and which extended into low latitudes in Europe. On
this continent one species at least had reached to the vicinity of
its present habitat before the glaciation of the region. Among
€ fossil specimens already found in California, but which our
trustworthy paleontological botanist has not yet had time to ex-
amine, we may expect to find evidence of the early arrival of
these two redw upon the ground which they now, after
much yicissitude, scantily occupy.
296 Prof. Gray's Address before the
Differences of climate, or circumstances of migration, or both,
must have determined the survival of Sequoia upon the Pacific,
and of Zaxodiwm upon the Atlantic coast and still the redwoods
will not stand in the east, nor could our Zaxodium find a con-
redwoods ; the other is far south in the Andes of Chili. |
enealogy of the Torreyas is more obscure ; yet it 18 a
unlikely that the yew-like trees, named Juxrites, which flourish
with the Sequoias in the tertiary arctic forests, are the remote
ancestors of the three species of Torreya, now severally 1
Florida, in California, and in Japan.
s to the pines and firs, these were more numerously a880-
ciated with the ancient Sequoias of the polar forests than with
their present representatives, but in different species, “pp
more like those of eastern than of western North America
They must have encircled the polar zone then, as they encircle
the present temperate zone now.
I must refrain from all enumeration of the angiospermous OF
ordinary deciduous trees and shrubs, which are now known by a
their fossil remains to have flourished throughout the — =
regions when Greenland better deserved its name, and i
the present climate of New England and New Jersey. :
Greenland and the rest of the north abounded with oaks, eee”
senting the several groups of species which now inhabit both ou
eastern and western forest districts; several poplars, one bev!
like our balsam poplar or balm of gilead tree; more beec
than there are now, a hornbeam, and a hop hornbeam, somé
birches, a persimmon, and a planer-tree, near se ae re pe
those of the Old World, at least of Asia, as well as of Atlant _
North America, but all wanting in California; one Juglans
American Association at Dubuque. 297
a tertiary species, and one nearly allied to Sequova Langsdor, z,
which in turn is a probable ancestor of the common Californian
redwood; has furnished to Lesquereux in North America, the
remains of another ancient Sequoia, a Glyptostrobus; a Liquid-
ambar which well represents our sweet-gum tree; oaks analogous
iving ones; leaves of a plane tree, which are also in the
tertiary, and are scarcely distinguishable from our own Platanus
talis ; o
undistinguishable from our living species.” I eed not con-
Our actual flora are marked in the cre us period, and have
come to us after passing, without notable changes, through the
te formations of our continent.
rilary
According to these views, as regards plants at least, the
adaptation to successive times and changed conditions has been
tions, TI, for one, cannot doubt that the present existing species
are the lineal successors of those that garnished the earth in
around us are to their conditions now. Order and exquisite
Am. Jour. So.—Turrp Serres, Vor. IV, No. 19.—Oor., 1872.
oD
298 0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles.
adaptation did not wait for man’s coming, nor were they ever
stereotyped. Organic Nature,—by which I mean the system and
totality of living things, and their adaptation to each other and to
the world,—with all its apparent and indeed real stability, should
be likened, not to the ocean, which varies only by tidal oscilla-
tions from a fixed level to which it is always returning, but
rather to a river so vast that we can neither discersi its shores
nor reach its sources, and whose onward flow is not’ less actual
because too slow to be observed by the ephemere which hover
over its surface or are borne upon its bosom.
Such ideas as these, though still repugnant to some, and not
long since to many, have so possessed the minds of the natural-
ists of the present day that hardly a discourse can be pronounced
or an investigation prosecuted without reference to them. I
suppose that the views here taken are little if at all in advance
of the average scientific mind of the day. I cannot regard them
as less noble than those which they are succeeding.
An able philosophical writer, Miss Frances Power Cobbe, has
recently and truthfully said : *
“Tt is a singular fact that when we can find out how anything
- done, our first conclusion seems to be that God did not do it.
I agree with the writer that this first conclusion is pe
_ and unworthy ; I will add deplorable. Through what faults
or infirmities of dogmatism on the one hand and scepticism 0?
the other it came to be so thought, we need not here consider.
Let us hope, and I confidently expect, that it is not to last; that
the religious faith which survived without a shock the notion
of the fixity of the earth itself, may equally outlast the notion 0
the absolute fixity of the species which inhabit it; that, in the
future even more than in the past, faith in an order which 1s
the basis of science will not (as it cannot reasonably) be dis:
severed from faith in an Ordainer, which is the basis of religion
iene.
Art. XXXIX.—Preliminary Description of New Tertiary
Reptiles; by O. C. Marsh. Parr L
_ THE remains described in this paper are from the early bet
tiary deposits of the Rocky Mountain region, and were dis-
covered by the Yale College party during their explorations
summer and autumn of last year. The localities are nearly
* Darwinism in Morals, in Theological Review, April, 1871.
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles. 299
all in the Eocene beds of the Green River basin, first examined
by the Yale party, in 1870, and found to contain so many new
and interesting forms of vertebrate life.* In this extinct fauna,
eptiles were particularly abundant, and among them were
numerous Lizards, several species of which are here described.
Thinosaurus paucidens, gen. et sp. nov.
The present species is based upon the greater part of a skele-
ton found, by the writer, in place. Portions of several other
of the crowns attached to the inner wall of the jaw are muc
expanded, and their sides furrowed, as in Heloderma. The
orsal vertebree have the articular ball and cup transversely
elliptical, and much inclined. The centra have their inferior
surface very slightly concave longitudinally, and convex trans-
versely. The articular faces for attachment of the nibs have
* This Journal, vol. i, 1871, pp. 192, 322, and 447.
300 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles.
gated, but less so than the dorsals. The distal caudal verte-
bre are slender, but not materially compressed. The limb
bones preserved resemble those of the Iguanas. The remains
peerres of this species indicate an animal about four feet in
ength.
Measurements.
Space occupied by three lower teeth,.........+6+-ee-0e5 Loe
Length of dorsal vertebra from edge of cup to end of ball, 16°
WAGED Of ATHCUIAE CUD,. o>. ~d0csc es oe opens svrenens teat 11°
PPR GU WAG) 0s cre i ee eet on eens tases 5 oe eee hee 10°2
Expanse of anterior zygapophyses,..........++e-++-008:
Expanse of posterior zygapophyses,....-....+-+++ee eee 17
Expanse of small intermediate processes,............+++ 4°5
Length of first sacral vertebra,............cce0e socees 13
Width of cup,........ Weis ak Fuleee dive obee een bbe eee 6
BONO OF Brat COG, 26. 5 PN a ees ba ENS 132
The type specimen of this species was found by the writer,
t
last September, at Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming. The geologi
horizon is Eocene, or possibly Upper Miocene.
Thinosaurus leptodus, sp. nov.
This species, which was somewhat smaller than the one
above described, is indicated by the more important parts 0
two skeletons, and some isolated remains of other individuals.
U
over the lower half, at least, of the crown. There is a distinct
cutting edge in front, but none behind on the lower part of the
teeth observed. The vertebrae are very similar to th ;
paucidens. The articular cup is transversely elliptical, and 18
pacar depressed above for the neural canal. The two sacral
vertebrae are ankylosed. Both are short, and have a deep
as on the lower surface of the expanded diapoP
The pelvic arch is very similar to that in the Iguanas,
ilium is pointed at its upper extremity. The caudal vertebre
ave the chevrons situated about one-third the length of the
centrum from the end of the articular ball. The tail was long
and slender.
Measurements. ;
Space occupied by three lower teeth,...........- s+ ++" ibe
ntero-posterior diameter of crown of lower tooth,....--> 2°5
Transverse di he ber as nek oe en je enals eles a8 1
O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles. 301
Length of dorsal vertebra on lower surface,............. 13°6™"-
BPIath OE CPs. neva Kids bes) {cued aieawt neers 9°
Expanse of anterior zygapophyses,.......+-.s0+eeeeeees 16
Length of two united sacral vertebree, eigiucecs ois 18°6
Length of ‘lium, lise aden eas has ae ea ee 42°7
The skeleton on which this description is mainly based was
found in September last, at Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming, by Mr.
. Quigley. Another ns eae was found at the same
locality by Mr. G. G. Lobdell
Thetiovasirvs crassus, Sp. NOV.
A third and still larger species of the same genus is repre-
sented in our Wyoming collections by a number of dorsal ver-
tebree, and a few other less characteristic remains, all parts of
one skeleton. The vertebree preserved differ con siderably from
those of the preceding species, in being much more massive in
proportion to their jong which is about the same as in
ucidens. Those of the dorsal series have the inferior surface
of the centrum aay straight niga meren ved and flat
slightly concave eva ronsely The unarticular surface of t
vertebree is everywhere irregularly striated The known re-
mains of this species indicate a reptile about five feet in length.
Measurements.
Length of dorsal vertebra on lower surface,.........++++ 16.3
Transverse diameter of articular cup,.....-.---++++e++-> 11:2
MEVOOAG CIBINOLOr Ge BO occa scans 6 ak tate ae St 43°
matin Giiwichie ns a cake cams vac 55
Expanse of anterior zygapophyses,......--+--+eeee renee
Expanse of posterior zy gapophyses, es uo eee mee eees 20°2
The specimen on which the present species is based w
found by the writer, last See in the Tertiary shale et
Mery: s Fork, Wyoming.
Thinosaurus grandis, sp. nov.
A gigantic Lizard, the largest yet discovered in the Green
River basin, and exceeding i in size any livi RPI is indi-
cated by fragmentary portions of several individuals. These
remains agree so nearly with those of the species above de-
scribed that they may be referred, provisionally at least, to the
genus Thinosaurus, The ve — so far as known, resemble
in their proportions ene ae
302 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles.
vertebra has a groove on the lower side of its diapophyses.
This species was probably not less than seven feet in length,
and three or four times the bulk of Jguana tuberculata.
Measurements.
Transverse diameter of cup of dorsal vertebra,........--- 13°
Transverse diameter of same vertebra between articular
faces of diapophyses, ...+....--ee cece cece cece eeceree 29
Transverse diameter of neural arch between zygapophyses, 16°
22°
mle
Expanse of posterior zygapophyses, ......-.-+++eeeeeees
Length of posterior sacral vertebra,........+++++eee+005 18°
a tensyerse diameter of ball). oo 05 oo. os Sores ose ope ee 11°5
Length of first caudal vertebra,......00..00 cece veneers 18°1
Antero-posterior diameter of acetabular cavity,.......-++ 21:
The type specimen of this species was found, in September,
1870, at a Buttes, Wyoming, by Mr. C. W. Betts, of the
Yale party of that year.
Thinosaurus agilis, sp. NOV.
larger species, but the basal grooves on the inner side do not
extend up so far on the crown. The two species may ?
readily distinguished, also, aside from the great difference 1
size, by the anterior caudal vertebrx, which in the present spect
men have the articular cup much more depressed. In the
dorsal vertebree, the neural spine is quite short. The middle
and distal caudals are much elongated. The remains preserve
indicate an animal about two feet long.
Length of dorsal vertebra on lower surface,....------- 10°3 ™
Width of articular COPics oat cas oo ae
Width of ball. 2. coco ee
Expanse of anterior zygapophyses,._.......---------- 9°
Expanse of posterior zygapophyses,........-.-----.-- 8°2
ength of first caudal vertebra,..............-..----- 73
Width of artitnlar tipo sn ee 5°
2°8
Vertical diameter of cup, - - -
Tranverse diameter of distal end of femur, ;
The specimens on which this description is based were found,
last autumn, near Henry’s Fork, by Mr. G. G. Lobdell, jr.
Glyptosaurus princeps, sp. nov.
In addition to the characters given when the genus @lypl?
saurus was proposed,* the following, derived from a study of
* This Journal, vol. i, p. 456, June, 1871.
weer ee wwe eee
0. ©. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles. 303
more complete specimens, may be mentioned. The entire body
and tail was covered with ornamented osseous plates, most of
them united by suture. The rami of the lower jaw were but
loosely attached at the symphysis. There were numerous small
teeth, “dents en cardes,” on the pterygoids. The malar arch
was complete. The parietals were thick, and there was a
parietal foramen. The pelvic arch and the limb bones resemble
those in the Iguanas, but the posterior limbs were proportion-
ally smaller. The caudal vertebre, in some species at least,
were divided transversely by a thin unossified septum, so
that the centra break there readily, as in many recent lizards.
those of Heloderma. "The lower teeth were close together, and
had their bases deeply fluted. The frontal bones are very
ry
are closely and irregularly crowded together. They are tuber-
cular, and collectively resemble the patern of some of the
pla
Measurements.
= occupied by anterior twelve lower teeth, 23°
idth of frontals at posterior edge of nasal suture, --- -- 15°6
Width at posterior edge of prefrontal suture, 19°
Greatest thickness of frontals on median line, 5°
Width of cotylus of lower jaw,. ne A
Longitudinal diameter, . 5... 2c paves 3
_ The type specimen of this species was found by the writer,
in Sealer last, in the Eocene shale at Grizzly Buttes,
Wyoming.
Oreosaurus vagans, gen. et Sp. NOV.
were not covered with osseous scutes. The body was thus pro-
tected, but the dermal plates preserved, even those evidently
304 0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles.
from the dorsal region, were united together by beveled edges.
The teeth were pleurodont. The pterygoid bones supported
minute tubercular teeth, resembling those of Glyptosaurus. _
In the species here described the teeth are rodlike, with
small bases, and obtuse striated summits, which are crowned by
a low longittdinal ridge. The frontals are thick, and loosely
united by suture. Between the orbits, their sides are. nearl
Measurements.
Space occupied by eight teeth near middle of lowerjaw,- 11:2 ™
es occupied by four anterior teeth of upper jaw,---- 5
idth of band of small teeth on pterygoid, _----~------ 4°6
Width of frontals at posterior margin,.-_-.-.--------- 13°
Width between orbits, i Ue ee
The known remains of this species were found by the writer,
last autumn, at Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming.
Tinosaurus stenodon, gen. et sp. nov.
A small carnivorous Lizard is indicated among our Wyom-
ing fossils, by part of a lower jaw, with two teeth, in excellent
preservation, and by some other fragmentary specimens. -
teeth preserved are from near the middle of the lower Jaw.
Their crowns are short, much compressed, pointed, and curve
backward. They are separated from each other about half the
diameter of the crown. The anterior tooth is the larger, and
Measurements.
Space occupied by three lower teeth,....-.------------ 45 OF
eight of crown of lower tooth above jaw,------------- dl
Antero-posterior diameter at base,.......-.----------- 1°8
Transverse diameter of jaw below teeth,....----------- 2°
The remains which can now with certainty be referred "i
this species are from Henry’s Fork, Wyoming, and were foune —
by Mr. J. F. Page, in September last.
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles. 305
Part II.
Glyptosaurus brevidens, sp. nov.
The present species is well represented by the greater portion
ofa skeleton in remarkable preservation. “The reptile appears
to have been covered up, soon after death, in the soft mud of
the lake, and thus the bones, and even many of the dermal
Scutes, were preserved in their natural position. The remains
covered with similar scutes. The malar arch was massive.
The teeth are rod-like, close together, and unusually short, pro-
Jecting but slightly beyond the jaw. The summits are obtuse,
and marked by irregular strie. The pterygoid teeth are
minute, and arranged in a narrow band. The dermal scutes
on the malar region are very thick, and have their tubercles in
concentric rows, forming an ocellated pattern. The dorsal
plates are large, quadrilateral in form, with the lateral margins
united by suture, and the ends imbricate. The exposed parts
of these scutes are covered with small tubercles, arranged ear
€ margin in rows. e center is more or less carinate
longitudinally, The cervical vertebre have a keel below,
which gradually subsides in the dorsal region. The articular
l is surrounded by a deep groove.
3 Measurements.
Width of frontals between GEN hicks cua cee nsdn ees 19: te:
= agg occupied by five posterior upper teeth,..........- 75
sdth Of cosipital condyle, 666.65 2. A 8°
pth of lower jaw at cotylus,....... Pete rents ees 12°
Length of centrum of anterior dorsal vertebra,.......... 11°
Width of articular cu pe Bill See ieee (ides ws es
anse of anterior zygapophyses,....--....++e2+++2+5 15°
eth of dorsal soute, £55.50 00 bs ass ot ne ge cns cae se
Width of same) 26. At GA
This specimen was found by the writer, last September, at
Grizzly Buttes Wyoming.
Glyptosaurus rugosus, sp. Nov.
ment. The prefrontal and postfrontal bones, moreover, ap-
Proach each other, above the orbit, much more nearly than in
306 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles.
the species hitherto described. The remains preserved of this
species indicate an animal about three or four feet in length.
Measurements,
Width of both frontals at posterior margin,.........-++ Sh7
WV Mates WEEWOCN OP DIR os 6 56 bs 5 ons wo ok os snes sees cee 22.
Extent of postfrontal suture on frontal,.............++ 13°5
Distance between prefrontal and postfrontal,........+.-. 3.
Thickness of frontals on median line between orbits,....- 3°4
The only known remains of the present species were found,
in September last, at Grizzly Buttes, by Mr. 'T. G. Peck, of the
Yale party.
Glyptosaurus sphenodon, sp. NOV.
A smaller species, probably belonging to the genus (lyplo-
saurus, is indicated in ou
River basin. The crowns are long, cylindrical, separated
slightly from each other, and directed ‘obliquely backward.
The summits are compressed, and very sharp. ‘The bases of
the teeth are rugose, and the crowns smooth. This species was
about two or three feet in length.
Measurements.
Space occupied by four upper teeth,............00e0e 0 gees
Height of upper tooth on inner side,..............-++" :s +e
MPUOTS TNO FAW os Ses ss ewe des eee woh eee 2°
Antero-posterior diameter of crown,..........2eeee0e08¢ 12
The specimens at present representing this species were dis
covered last autumn, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming, by Mr.
T. G. Peck.
Glyptosaurus ocellatus Marsh.
This Journal, vol. i, p. 458, June, 1871.
ortant parts of the same skull and skeleton. The frontals il
slightly sigmoid longitudinally, the posterior margin and the vd
terobital region being elevated. They are closely covered wee
form an ocellated pattern. The plates of the middle row on each
frontal between the orbits have their length and width nearly
equal. The pterygoid bones have a narrow band of teeth ee
their inner margin, and exterior to this in front a second sh po]
This species was rather larger than the type specime?
G. sylvestris.
0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles. 307
Measurements.
Length of frontals on median line, lg
Width between orbits, 19°5
idth at posterior margin, 32°4
Transverse diameter of distal end of humerus,....----- 18°4
The specimen here described is from Grizzly Buttes, Wyo-
ming, and was found by Mr. J. F. Page.
Oreosaurus lentus, sp. nov.
emarginate. The chevrons are thus attached on either side to
a prominent ridge, their position being a little behind the
middle of the centrum. The reptile represented by the remains
preserved was apparently about two or three feet long.
Measurements.
Length of anterior caudal vertebra on lower surface,..... We etirris
Transverse diameter of articular cup,.......+..2se00e+0: 44
meen! Alanister, 02. ci as aE ce
Distance from chevrons to end of ball,..... ..---+-se+05 3°5
_ The known remains of this species were found by the writer,
in September last, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
Oreosaurus gracilis, sp. Nov.
A somewhat smaller lizard, which may for the present be
e Or
Space occupied by the fourteen anterior teeth of lower jaw, 10°2™™-
375
Depth of jaw below fourteenth tooth, .......-.-.++-+++
Thic ess of jaw at this point,......-.-+-6-eeeeeeeeee 2°4
Length of symphysis,........- i aeenacs (54 ence 2
The remains on which this species is based were found, last
autumn, by the writer, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming. The
Seological horizon is Eocene.
308 0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles.
Oreosaurus microdus, sp. NOV.
Another species, apparently belonging to the genus Oreosaurus,
and about as large as O. gracilis, may be established on some
isolated remains which are quite characteristic. One of these
is part of a lower jaw with the teeth in excellent preservation.
The latter are unusually small and slender, and curve gently
outward. The crowns are nearly round; the summits obtuse,
somewhat compressed, and marked by irregular striw. The
5
jaw is stout, and the groove for Meckel’s cartilage large.
Width of jaw near middle, . oy hee aeenth» Seok eee: 2°
Length of lower tooth including base,........... rr 2°
The only remains that can now with certainty be referred to
this species are from the Eocene beds, near Henry’s Fork,
where they were found by the writer, last September.
Oreosaurus minutus, sp. NOV.
Measurements. igs
Space occupied by eight anterior teeth of lower jaw,.---- 22
Depth of jaw below eighth lower tooth, .........+++-++ 15
Thickness of jaw at this point, ......0 sescescosrsseesss
Space occupied by four upper teeth of larger specimen,.-- 2°
The type specimens of this species were discovered by the
writer, last autumn, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
Tinosaurus lepidus, sp. nov.
A species of very small lizards, apparently belonging © the
genus Tinosaurus, may be established on some fragment®'y ;
remains among our Wyoming fossils. One of these 8 ao
anterior half of a lower jaw in good condition. The pee |
specimen are compressed, and closely resemble those a —
chameleon. The rami of the lower jaw were stout, and mi
O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Reptiles. 309
deep, and met each other ata considerable angle. The sym-
physis is short, and its surface nearly smooth, showing that the
tami were but slightly attached. The groove for Meckel’s
cartilage is unusually large. The animal represented by the
remains preserved was probably not more than a foot in length.
Measurements.
Space occupied by four anterior lower teeth, ........... ane
Depth of jaw below fourth tooth, ..........0+.0e00. ioe
Meer or iw at thix points. ween. nocacacshertkabn neon 16
Length of BY URD YSN 5 6 dog oie hace 0 oe bee aE 2
_ The specimen here described was found by Mr. O. Harger,
in September last, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
Iguanavus exilis, gen. et sp. nov.
tion. The specimens that can now be plac
belonged to animals about two feet in length.
Me
easurements.
Length of twelfth caudal vertebra on lower surface, ..... oT =
Dsverse diameter of articular cup,.......-..s++--+++: 2
Vertical GiAMeteR: Vs cise beast RO Pe aye ear 18
Transverse diameter of articular ball, ... cscs sne csess 2
The remains above described were found last September, by
the writer, near Henry’s Fork, Wyoming.
Limnosaurus ziphodon, gen. nov.
Crocodilus ziphodon Marsh. This Jour., vol. i, p. 453, June, 1871.
Additional remains of this species, since obtained by the
Yale party at the same locality as the type specimen, clearly
show that it belongs to a genus quite distinct from the modern
Crocodilus, The sharp, compressed teeth, with both edges
Serrated, differ widely from those of any known Crocodilians,
and alone afford a distinctive character. Others w
Stven in the full description.
Yale College, New Haven, Sept. 21st, 1872.
310 Scientific Intelligence.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1. Water not an Electrolyte.—The books have long taught that
the object of adding an acid, in the electrolysis of water, is to
render it a conductor. The fact that compound substances when
decomposable conduct only by electrolysis, and hence, that a
body not an electrolyte cannot be made so by the addition of
another body, has long rendered it probable that it is the acid
which is actually decomposed by the current, and that the water
suffers decomposition only by a secondary action. Boureory has
investigated the subject experimentally, and has proved that
acid, and the current is passed for a given time, the hydrogem
being collected. Whenth ant a Concluded: the contenmen
hydrogen equal to 3" It is therefore certain that it is not H,S0,
which is decomposed, but H,SO,+(H,0O),, or H,SO,. Two
hypotheses may be offered to as this Ma» tes 1) Both the
be and the acid are decomposed by the current, but success
ively:
Positive electrode. Negative electrode.
H,SO, = (S0,+0)+........ H, ;
(H, 0), — O ee eee ee ee ee Be
or (2) The current decomposes a definite compound having the
formula SO,(H,0O).,, or H.SO, :
H(80, = 180 4-0) 46306 ss
Facts show the second supposition to be the true one. Operating,
for example, with currents ing intensity, upon liquids com
t H “
to H,SO,+125aq,, it is found that the ratio of the acid decom
posed to the hydrogen evolved is always that above given; whic
would not be the case, in all probability, were the acid and water
separately electrolyzed. Moreover, the compound H,SO, 18 not
Chemistry and Physics. 311
a hypothetical one, since an acid of ae constitution has been ren-
dered probable by the maximum contraction observed when one
molecule of H,SO, and two of pe ig are mixed. In the case of
nitric acid, the seth of current ss age to be upon the group
20,(H, O) 45 ; a body conceded to e
Crystallized oxalic sae “‘dorianately, dake in solution, is elec-
trolyzed alone, no water takin ng part. The hydrogen disengaged
corresponds to the equatio
C,H,0,(H,0), = (C, O,-+0,) ihe 6 ea, ae (Boa
As only Sections dioxide is set free at the positive electrode,
must be that the AL soon evolved reacts upon and destroys ae
portion of the acid, t
(C,H,0,(H, O)a)e+0, = (C,0,),+(H29),.
Moreover, if this interpretation be true, the quantity of acid de-
stroyed should be much greater at the positive than the negative
electrode ; for:
1) At N electrode. By current 1 molecule,
‘Aci
cid sare (2) At P electrode ode |
“
Now
exactly ¢ thre e times | greater than at the negative. gain, in elec-
ie
©
ae
®
Q
et
Lee §
2
fu
®
m1
ma
z
Rm
BH.
a)
ie
ig
é
°
®
ae
_-
ec
°
a
ey
h
the result yh The si sia on ee acid only, thus:
EO electrode. Negative electrode.
sie (C, H,0,4+-0) +... .%..5 H
and a . ‘the pom: the ea reactions occur:
,0,+0 = CO,+CH,0,.
(2) Water alone is tcomee
,0,+0 = CO,+H,0
arn iy The acid bey he water sxe both ie simultane-
C,H,0,0)-++-0 = (CO,),+H
If « represent the’ amount of acid slecteotpiad, 2s loss pina be:
by the first hypothesis, nothing at the positive and equal to ; Sat
the negative electrode; by the second, on the corny there i is no
loss at the negative, and the* oss is equal to a at the se
electrode; and by - third, it is equal in ak pasa ent,
being represented by < 3 Now experiment shows that there is no
loss of acid at the positive electrode ; hence the first hypothesis is
the true one, and the water is not ‘decomposed by the current.
lies an Bourgoin concludes, therefore, that: “ Water is
hot decomposed by the electric current; it plays the part of a
Solvent only.”— Bull, Ch., U, xvii, 244, arch, 1872.
G F. B.
312 Scientific Intelligence.
. pr. Ch., Il, v, 365, May, 1872. G. F. B.
3. On the Formation of Chloral._—The action of chlorine upon
a .,, CH; Wirts ou
aldehyde H produces acetyl chloride docr 78 urtz
l
CO : ;
time ago showed. In this case it is not the methylic groups
CH,, but the incomplete group COH, which is attacked. ;
order to render this latter group more resistant, Worrz 3°
VoarT load it, as it were, with other groups; hoping thereby to
limit the action to the methyl group. For this purpose, they use
the compound CH,---CH es oH, obtained by Wurtz and Fra-
lli by acting with hydrochloric acid gas on a mixture of ean
yada and alcohol. Here the COH group is replaced by one 0
greater complication, CH | “y oH, Upon submitting this sub-
stance to the action of chlorine in presence of a eee a iodine,
the predicted tetrachlorinated ether, OCl,---CH 4 ¢) 7? °, 18 ob-
tained, This it is easy to transform into chloral by the action of
water:
ocl,--CH | OP 24s 11,0 = HC1+0,H, (OH)+CCl,--COH.
Heated with alcohol, hydrochloric acid and trichloracetal are pr
duced, thus: oc.H
CC1,--OH | Gy 2M +.C,H, (OH) = HC1+C01,--CH} oc2H?
Moreover, the hydrochloric acid acting on an excess of alcohol
produces, at the same time, ethyl chloride. Cee
B above reactions, the authors explain the ag
chlorine upon alcohol in the production of chloral. The nas
stage produces aldehyde and hydrochloric acid, as Stas
shown:
in? 401,2(HON,4+ 10
This a ia og acid acts upon the aldehyde and the ere
alcohol, to form the monochlorinated ether of Wurtz an
polli:
CH CH '
(2) CaH,(OH)+ (° +H01 = CH,--CH} Oy? *+H20
This ether then becomes tetrachlorinated by the action of the
chlorine, as above shown:
(3.) CH,--CH | Crete tol, = CCl,--CH} OCH + HCI)»
‘Geology and Natural History. 313
And finally, by the action of water produced in the last reaction,
the tetrachlorinated ether produces chloral and alcohol:
(4) CCl,---CH Ors 4 1,0= HC1+C,H, (OH)+CCl,-.-COH,
or, by the action of alcohol, produces trichloracetal,—a substance
| detected by Lieben in the products of the chloral manu-
acture,
mM water is neutral and tastes sweetish. Treated with silver oxide,
it yields free dulcitamine, as a powerful base, easily displacing
ammonia from its combinations, bluing strongly red litmus
Water and alcohol. Dulcitamine has the formula C,H,,NO,, an
resembles glyceramine in many of its properties. Its discovery
furnishes new proof of the close relations between the triatomic
alcohol, glycerin, and the hexatomic alcohol, dulcite—C. &.,
Ixxiv, 1406, May, 1872, G F. B
Il. Grotoagy AND Natura History.
1. Hayden Rocky Mountain Geological Expedition.—(From
4 letter by Dr. F. V. Haypen, in charge of the Expedition, to
J.D. Dana, dated Madison Valley, Montana Territory, Sept. 1,
1872.)—The following is a brief summary of what the survey under
my charge has accomplished up to the present time, and what it
Proposes to do before the end of the season.
rge and well-equipped parties have been in the field at
y uly. The largest party made Ogden
the point of departure. It was under the direction of Mr. James
tevenson, my principal assistant. There are attached to this
814 Scientific Intelligence.
surveyed a route from Ogden to Fort Hall, Idaho, where full
preparations were made for a pack train with supplies for a given
time. Snake Riv
valley, forced their way across the mountains, made a careful sur-
vey of the Teton range, then passed up the valley of Henry’s
reached the Geyser Basin of the Madison August 14th.
The pa
t disco’
made by this party was the four remarkable passes at the head of
ese passes correspond to the four points of th
compass, and are all within a few miles of each other. Henry
Lake is located in the center. The Targee or East pass is about
6,500 feet elevation, and forms one of the at gateways to
Madison valley, and the sources of the Madison and Yellowston®
Henry’s or South pass is about 6,000 feet, and opens into)”
Snake valley; Red Rock or West pass, 6,300 feet, connects the
great valley of the Jefferson branch, while the Madison or South
pass opens into the lower Madison. All these passes are
smooth and low that one may ride over them in a carriage are
spe There is probably not a more interesting geograph
point on the American continent where there are, within a0 area
Geology and Natural History. 315
of a few miles, four such remarkable gree. eat the Pacific
es the Atlantic slopes. There is not the slightest obstruction
railroad over either of these eitnek migrants are already
following our track of exploration, and hoe Soke ten fon
very numerous, and their vale in the location of i Sedpoireait points,
as well as correcting the old one a has abr: reat. The Tetons
found to be within ©
All
tion is paid to all results of a practical character on the principle
that the money that enables us to make t se explorations comes
om the people, and should acl = far ai possible to them in a
sha re will be avedlabie to
e party under Mr. eveniiee ‘s now on its way down the
east side of the Snake River valley, having carefully surveyed the
Sources of that river: every branch will be carefully locate The
party will reach Fort Hall about the 13th of October. It will
then survey a parallel belt to Salt Lake City, thus connecting all
our work in the northwest with the Pacific railroad. The party
under my charge will complete the survey of the Madison river
and its branches, then the Gallatin to its sources, then pass over
moi mountains into the valley of the Yellowstone, down to the
thal? g to the mouth of Shields river, then to the three
forks of the Missouri, and then down that river to Helena, where
our labors will probably close about the Ist of November.
latitude and longitude of Fort Ellis has been quite pone fixed
Y an extended series of observations by Mr. Gan with a
transit, — similar observations will be made at Virainia City
and Helen
- Besides the two large parties mentioned above, there have been
a number of smaller ones operati ng in various portions of the
West, under the auspices of this survey. Prof. Cyrus Thomas
spent t the season in the northwest collecting agricultural ——
and all other information of a service character, s bee
ae aes visit Dakota and ota, and to push his : ai en
rthward into the Red River country as possible. e
public ae — for a continuation of his agricultural reports, as
ell as n insects, and other subj
f. PD Cope, one of our most disti nguished scientists, fitted
Sut quite an extensive party at Fort Bridger at the expense of the
316 Scientific Intelligence.
work by an examination of the celebrated Kansas bone deposits.
The results of his labors will be of great importance to Geology,
Paleontology, and Natural History generally.
Professor Joseph Leidy, the eminent comparative anatomist of
Philadelphia, is also exploring the west for fossil vertebrates. He
is also making a study of the minute forms of life under the
microscope, and will present a report on the minute fauna an
flora of the districts he visits é
Mr. F. B. Meek, accompanied by H. M. Bannister, of the Smith-
sonian Institution, has spent about two months along the Pacific
railroad for the purpose of making a critical examination of dis-
a or obscure points in the geology of that interesting region.
eir success has been most satisfactory, and a valuable report
may be expected.
rof. Leo. Lesquereux, our great authority on the Coal for-
mations and the fossil plants found with them, has spent most of
the summer, assisted by his son, in the west. He first went to
-
then explored the coal beds around Denver
Cheyenne, and made a critical investigation of the Coal for-
m the Uni ifi
annual report next winter.
These special examinations had for their prime object the deter
mining, by the most overwhelming evidence, the relations of the
great group of Tertiary beds of the west to the Saleen =
i ant
points of western geology. The a F
departments of research, to be illustrated in the quarto series of
n the Owen’s Valley Harthquake.—The August and ay:
dD; Yee on the “Owen’s Valley Earthquake” of March
26th, 1872. In pursuing the geological survey of the State, ®
party found it necessary to pass through the valley, and occasion
was taken to make such scientifie inquiri d observations: vad
the time allowed. The first paper, of which the following 184
brief abstract, describes the geological character of the region
and the local phenomena.
wen’s valley is about 70 miles long, and is enclosed on the
west by ae Sierra Nevada, rising from 10,000 to 11,000 feet 7 ee
the valley, and on the east by the steep and narrow range na
Geology and Natural History. 317
upheaval. nyo range, on the other hand
ancient, being a part of the great Paleozoic formation of the
Grea n, and consists of limestones, sandstones, and other
land north of the valley and south of Mono lake there are
abundant indications of former voleanic activity, in the form of
solfataras and hot springs
ndependence. In the region to the south of the lake the vibra-
ons were felt as approaching from the northwest; at Lone Pi
they were referred to the high mountains in the immediate vicinity
i assign
”
Was always more to the south of west as we proc north.
€ recurrence of subterranean noises preceding or accompany!
the shocks is confirmed, and the noises are re the cracking
brush slope.’” A tidal wave was produced in Owen’s lake, but
caused no damage beyond the temporary inundation of the shore.
318 Scientific Intelligence.
“There are several places in the valley where eva in the
ound have crossed roads, ditches or snes of fences, and where
evidence has been left of an actual moving of the one hori-
zontally as well as vertically. One of these instances of horizontal
motion is seen on the road from Bend City to eee pee 5 about
three miles east of the latter place. Here, according to areful
diagram of the Sera it appears that the road running poe and
west has been cu a fissure twelve feet wide, and the west-
erly portion of . ade! Sighieen feet to the south.” Other
similar instances were notic
The “ General Cmehintons? arrived at in the second paper are,
surface at a rate of from thirty to thirty-five miles in a minute, if
measured in a line at right angles to the axis of saul Si ai
aptain faa ajor General) R. J. Nelson, R. E. eh or of
a bee which, through oversi isht, is 0
ee in the writer’s recent work on Corals and Coral Is iso
The abstract nppeaeed in the Quar $n Journal of the Society for
1853, p. 200.—J
Hydrographical Office, is only 230 fect ae ‘the sea, Gener rally
speaking, the hills on the larger ipa are much under 300; feet in
height, ‘and on the islets from 50 to 10 feet. The
ities generally is occupied by ee rocky hills "bee ae
ing basins or lorena parts of what may once have been basins,
cuyirncue ae an Witer, ‘more or less brackish, rises and falls
every where throughout the lower parts of these flats, though ye
contemporaneously with the tide*, or at a uniform rate. The s
face is sometimes covered with grass and low bush, and foe
it consists of the bare rock, ful of hollows, which are coated or
even arched over with wists achdaistantie substance. It is in these
cavities, locally termed “ pot holes,” that most of the soil is found;
and in the gardens made on such ground, Bra Sree, 2 pine-appes
Indian aioe sugar-cane, etc., grow luxuriantly, ides t ask
“rock-marshes” there are also ordi inary marshes and mangroy
swamps, of no great extent or depth, which are more or less 10
connection with the sea. On the lar wer islands the rocky surlace
_* At Nassau, Bahamas, the tide rises from 4 to 3 feet (spring to neap); but
ai Iuensids & Haasteoke 5 bs to 44.
e
Geology and Natural History. 319
of the hills is very thinly and partially covered with “red earth,”
mixed in varying proportions with vegetable matter. This scanty
soil is fertile, if well used. en uncleared, it is covered with
bush and forest trees. There are also sandy tracks termed “ pine-
barrens,” where the bush suddenly disappears and the palmettos
become fewer in number, though enough remain to exhibit an
}
northern and southern floras. The lowest portions of the flat
grounds frequently nonkenn small brackish water or salt lakes. In
the chalk-marsh of Andros Island, howev er, there is a freshwater
lake, with three streams as its outlets; and it appears that, there i is
no ele freshwater lake or stream in ahs Bahamas.
There are large caverns in Long Cay and Rum Cay; a pr
ply caverns are as numerous in the Bahama Islands as in the
mudas; but so few extensive excay ations have nee made, that
Ba cannot be positively affirmed. of the most
striking objects in the topogra er of ue ae: is the very
veep submarine valley, forming the gulf known as “the Tongue
f the Oce ean,” nee runs into the Great Bahama Bank trom its
ved ea end. The color of the water around the islands is usually
G, &e., growing confusedly together without any other appar-
ent order than that of accidental succession and accretion, both
laterally and vertically. These are at times aided or even super
seded by Serpule, &c., as seen in the serpuline reefs
apt. Nelson si ‘out a few of the localities that exhibit most
clearly the character, source, and mode of sagregation of ben
materials of the ordinary Bahama rock, such as is formed
the sea level; at the same time re ferring ‘the illustrative
penimons in the ere Segiton' n, For peinne: ut
ide :
Point and W (specim o. 1) the shells o
; re especially accompany th Jast
Point (s ens Nos, 2 and 3) the sand is derived from corallines
and nullipores; the finer sand ing often in ig, SN iggy sre
spherical grains, phongh not so perfectly as at the
(Specimen No. between Exuma and Lon he beac
ear Charlotteville 1 Point (specimen No. 5) consists prineipally of
dg ylvanica in various stages of Seung taatine f
Hills (Caicos Group) the mass of Conch shells ( Strombus gigas)
uffi
rock, but an island several hundred feet in length. Along the N.
Ww. beach at Gun Cay (specimen No. 8), a hard, coarse, stratified
320 ' Scientific Intelligence.
rock is formed of Conch and other shells, together with coral frag-
which, being consolidated in various degrees, are converted into
rock of different qualities. * * * * TI
ance, but softer and more porous. When first exposed it is quite
white, and is inconveniently bright and dazzling under a tropical
sun; but it becomes of a dark ashen-gray color alon
and more or less so elsewhere, when exposed to the weather. Its
the south-west of New P
the rock is hard and homogeneous, and may be raised in good
blocks for building purposes. The looser and softer kinds of rock
are found usually on the hill tops. A variety offering a singular
counterfeit of true odlitic structure is found at or near White Gay,
xuma, and elsewhere; but the spherules are solid, and have bees
ung chalk formation.
The “red earth” previously mentioned as forming, generally
speaking, he B is at times interstratr
fied with the rock, and sometimes it is incorporated with it. It 18
complete clue to the characters of this substance. Some of the
varieties from the Del: i
2
the varieties gave off ammonia, whether retaining organi¢ texture —
Geology and Natural History. 321
or not. The author thinks it not unlikely that the “red earth,”
ven in the case of the five strata in Ireland Island, has been
largely deiivea from eh inhabiting once-existing cavern
the same time, he considers it probable that birds, their diops
pings fupplying a one of guano, have also assisted in the forma-
ion of this deposit.
e occurrence of pumice floated ashore at Watling Island, and
elsewhere in the aes amas pode also oo Bermuda); 1 is briefly. noticed.
4, 8 hio; by Prof. N. H
is was a circ - aepccege peculiarly favorable for the preservation of
h
the features of the drift. e whole of the vast tract is a plain
wit More unevenness than the age region of Illinois. He
accepted th cier theory © Pr gassiz to explain nearly
a
long ridges high have received the names of St. Johns, having
an elevation above Lake Erie of about ‘495 feet: Wabash, ei
isabout 375 feet above that lake; the St. Mary’s, ranging from 2
to 390 feet above Lake Erie; the Van Wert, ranging from 194 2
240 feet; the Blanchard ridge from 188 to 218 feet; “and the Bel
more ridge, about 150 feet above Lake Erie. These he regarded
aS So many terminal moraines left in the retreat of the local gla-
ot which filled ae 1e St. Lawrence v _ including the basins of
akes Ontario and Erie, as well as the valley of the Maumee,
about the close of the Glacial ea He aide all the drift i in North-
ers in it oa wh marked by glacier wats He ex xpla ained by crayon
diagrams how the drift, frozen in the ice, or riding on its back,
ow thawing of the foot of the elac er. He supposed that the
eet. At that time it had an outlet by way of Houg btoh, id,
through the wittled: of the Wabash, its outlet by way of the
Lawrence valley being yet obstructed by the glacier. Above
the
water of Lake Erie. regarded as evidences of a higher stage
of that lake the existence of loose sand knolls and ridges scattered
322 Scientific Intelligence.
over Northwestern Ohi running in all directions and having all
altitudes up to 200 fee
Th e oo. as ozars, or sand-bars thrown up by t the
action of currents and waves. Besides these sandy deposits —_
are numerous places known as ae sedan ridges, where the
has been denuded from the rock, the boulders found in the drift
being left in the immediate vicinity, usually in a belt round the
bases of these ridges. The rock in such cases is water-worn and
wrought into fantastic shapes, common about rocky shor
These sandy deposits of Lacustrine origin frequently obscure the
true glacier moraines for great distances, and have often been con-
founded with them.
he superficial lamination of the clay about Defiance, Ohio, he
ores to the action of the waters of the St. Joseph and St.
He aed the existence of these moraines as a confirmation
of the theory of Prof. Agassiz, and read off by proportions!
numbers the manner of retreat of the ice. The halting puns
separated by the following figures; 15; 15; 2; 35; 34; *
. L., Detroit Tribune of Aug. 31.
z Note on Tinoceras shapes. 3 if O, C. Marsu. te fe
name eee anceps, there eer: ae to he a
of this animal a are similar to usenoe Mansion eieageh parts of
onograph o, Ly ee he Fossil Crustacea belonging t
art III, Pterygotus and Slimonea yous
71-120, plates -absliga by Henry Woopwarp, F.G.S., F.2Z5.,
the British Museum. 4to. es 1872. a for the _—_
seersphien) Sasiens, —The first part o memoir
the volume of the Salecmonrah en Society for 1865 “pub
Geology and Natural Llistory. 323
fore be said to equal in size the largest species of the genus Prery-
gotus, which, no doubt, attained a length of at least five feet.”
€ specimen of Slimonia, figured natural size on plate xvii, is
Will give in a condensed form the diagnostic characters of each
Senus of the Merostomata.
1. Notice of a new species of Trnoceras; by O. C. Marsu.—A
Second species of Zinoceras, considerably larger than Z: anceps,
is represented in the Yale Museum by portions of a skull
and teeth, with parts of the same skeleton ; and likewise by frag-
mentary remains of several other individuals, all from the Eocene
deposits of Wyoming. The skull is proportionally very small,
and indicates one of the most remarkable animals yet discovered.
It rs apie a pair of short horns, and has also two powerful tusks,
Which in size, shape, and direction resemble the canines of the
Walrus, The molar teeth are small, the last of the upper series
being much the largest. The horn cores are short, somewhat
curved, with obtuse compressed summits. They are about 130™™*
mM length. There are apparently but five teeth in the upper molar
Series, and a long hiatus in front of the premolars. The tusks are
May be called Tinoceride. :
_ 8. Microscopical: A Life Slide—The accompanying engrav-
Mgs represent front and side views of a form of life slide for the
324 Scientific Intelligence.
microscope, designed and used with much success by Mr. D.S
Holman is constructed to retain the greatest quantity of mate-
rial under the smallest cover glass, and is designed to be used with
the highest powers of the microscope for studying the Bacteria,
Vibriones nad other very low forms of life. :
e slide consists, as will be seen from the cuts, of a central
polished cavity, about which is a similar polished bevel ; and from
the bevel outward extends a
small cut, the object of which
is to afford an abundance of bs
wou come so great, from
the evaporation of the liquid
within, as to cause the destruc-
The bevel is usually } in. in j
diameter (the cut is } of natural size); the small canal is cut
through the inner edge of the bevel or annular space, outward,
for the purpose named above. :
It is found upon enclosing the animaleule, &c., that they will
We have repeatedly had the opportunity of witnessing the use
of this slide, and are convinced that nothing of the kind has yet
IIL Astronomy.
1. Extract from the Address of Mr. De La Rur before the rere!
matical and Physical Section of the British Association of —
he was President.-Passing to the subject of comets, Mr. De.
Rue gave an explanation of Prof. Zéllner’s eS theory which,
e
Astronomy. 325
ceeded, tend to establish also a connection between solar spots and
solar radiation. It is demonstrated by the researches of Piazzi
Smyth, Stone, and Cleveland Abbe, that there is no connection
between the amount of heat received from the sun and the pre-
find a close harmony between them, connection will prob-
ably be found to exist over the globe generally ; but with refer-
ence to the Indian ocean, Mel discussion of twenty-five
years’ observations, that in |
and 25° south latitude, and between 40° and 110° east longitude,
as really come,
hot only for relieving private observers from the systematic ob-
Servation of solar phenomena, but for drawing close ties between
all scattered scientific observations so as to let one grand scheme
ada the whole; and no method seems to be so well adapted
Col. Srranex, in moving a vote of thanks, complimented the
President on his success in rendering photography available for
Uurposes of astronomical measurement, and thus accomplishing
What the most eminent astronomers had believed to be impossible,
826 Scientific Intelligence.
wire
through it, and laid it down, and after a few minutes the glass
This is a curious phenomena, and not easily ex-
that it was electrical. Omne ignotum pro electrico expresses the
whole foundation of Zéllner’s theory.——Proc. Brit. Assoc., Athen-
aum, Aug, 24.
2. Report on Lunar Objects suspected of Change. (Read be-
Mr. B
fore the British Association by met.)—As the last report
of the streaks and the color of the floor. The principal results of
the second discussion appeared to be that changes in the appeat
ance and luminosity of the streaks had been detected, and these
changes were of such a character that they could not be referred
to changes of illumination, but depended upon some agency con-
nected with the moon itself, while the color of the floor was found
to vary as the sun ascended in the lunar heavens, being darkest
with the greatest solar altitude. The report was accompanied
s Aurora Australis.—The Aurora Australis was visible on the
evening of April 11th, but could be observed only for a short time
on account of clouds. Between 7.30 and 7.50 P.M. streamers
cloud extending on the horizon from 8.8. W. to S.E. to a height of
12°-15°—cou seen, It gradually grew fainter, disappearmg
ding only a
«
white tint visible, growing rapidly fainter, wntil it was shut of
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 327
the
the solar system'since they depend on the condition of the sun.
5. The Obdject-glass of the Equatoreal of the Allegheny Observa-
glary, of a kind hitherto nearly unprecedented. It was entered at
night, after the Director and his assistant had left the building,
and the object-glass of the equatoreal v 3 inches in aperture), was
Temoved from the telescope and carried away. No other injury
was done, and, except some eye-pieces belonging to the transit,
nothing else was taken, ~
I have reason to believe that the thieves hoped to extort a large
teward for the return of the glass, which is of course otherwise
valueless to them.
onsidering that most of the observatories of the country
fehl sufferers by similar spoliation, if a preceden
it worth while for burgla
tle guarded instruments should be warned of a danger, I shall be
obliged by your giving publicity to this letter. :
6, um to Prof. Kirkwood’s Article on page 225 of this
volume.—The fraction zz, should have been printed yz4;.5-
IV. Miscentnangous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.
1. Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
u Science, at Dubuque, Iowa.—The standing committee having
iled in their efforts to make satisfactory arrangements for the
Meeting of the Association in San Francisco, accepte
tion of the citizens of Dubuque, and convened in the latter city on
the 21st of August, Prof. Asa Gray in the chair. After the
*
G
est, he yielded the chair to his successor, Prof. J. Lawrence Smith.
The fol owing business was transacted in general session,
f. Benjamin Peirce was added to the committee appointed
at the Indianapolis mee ting t iali the Gener al Government
™ regard to establishing an observatory at some suitable point
Upon the Rocky Mountains.
328 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
A committee was appointed to memorialize the General Govern-
ment in regard to the desirableness of compiling the results of all
the geological surveys of the country, and publishing the same,
together with suitable maps. This committee is to consist of all
the members who are or have been in charge of State or govern-
ment surveys.
A resolution was also passed asking of the War Department
the establishment of a Signal Service Station at Dubuque.
The association also by resolution expressed approval and
appreciation of the published results of the Geological Survey of
Iowa, and appointed a committee to memorialize the legislature of
Iowa, asking its continuance and liberal support until completed,
under the direction of Dr. C. A. White.
i nted at the Indianapolis meeting to report
whether ay revision of the constitution is required in relation to
a xe re ey
jon in » above regard occurrence
and expressed the belief that a strict adherence to its provisions
the
association was made, which, in accordance with the constitution,
will come up for action at the next meeting.
e following officers for the ensuing year were elected:
ass. (he havin
3
One hundred papers in all were presented; but over twenty of
these were not accepted for publication. The following an we
ern Limi pos W.
On the Ancient Mounds of Dubuque and its Vicinity; by H. T. WoopMay.
. Observations on living Rhynchonella; by E. S. Morse. :
A Discussion of the Forces of oe and Contraction; by J. D. WARNER
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 329
The Relation of the U.S. nee tte to the Geological and Topographical
Survey of the States ;
The. Sacha = the afissiseippi. River. by C. G. F
% Zoological Barriers, with speci ial reference to y Bont America; by JAMES
On Sympathetic age ene: as exhibited in sig pm See ae Vibrations, and
the Optical Method of showing them; by Jos. Lo
Diccitia ¢ ro Electr 2 Measurement, with alse soars Direstiden for its Practi-
cal paeicntion; hae de B
Hinearp.
Sola and Lunar Photogra’ ake by Jos. Wintock. [Communicated by Benj.
Glacial Deposits of Northern Ohio; by Joun B. PERRY.
On some ancient Carved rg — n N ew ae Bs — W, A ihn
a 1G; ARD.
I s; by . HiIneGarp.
On the relation between Or ic Vigor and — by ote’ ee —
Elephas en a new species of Fossil Elephant . Foster.
. Some Peculiarities in the Crania and ri of the ltorna Builders, by
C
oS
mm the Production of Spiegeleisen, embodying a paper by Hugh Hartmann; by
» FOSTER.
Becton of the Printing Chronograph at the Dudley Observatory; by G. W.
Patio Tables modified and expanded from Bessel’s formule, to be used
mg logarithms, computed with the Scheutz Tabulating Engine; by G. W.
7 the so-called velocity of the electric current over Telegraph Wires; by
G. W. Hoven.
use of Automatic Instruments for registering Meteorological Phenomena;
a “4 W. Hove:
use of Teed £ in the eee of Domes Battery; by G. W. Hoven.
5 On Binary Stars ; y D. Kinxw
gin of Limestone in the Coal Manteca: Es E. B. ANDREWS.
Grats sone of ite special Uses; by E. B. ANpREWS
Good Wine, a Social and National hapa by G mae gilocantal
"aad ne of North-Weste io; by N. . WIN
cal Data of some of the Noth Wester Shcaeas. poy nang eae,
by ©. HL
Explanation of. ix Geological Map of ive looeaggartea. by ©. H. Hrrowcoox.
of the Sun; by H. F. W.
1g Nor sop eepg ne by H. Pr. Wasa
The force at any point of the hortace ts ta roading Melk Aiipacld of threo
‘nequal axes, under hentia mee ig the gravy of its own particles and the accom-
trifugal J. Apcock.
a of the Progressive motion of Water in the Tide Wave, being less
ng gs upon
lengthen the day; by J. D. WARNE
On a new Genus in bo ba ng Family Tineide, with Remarks on the
Proctifeation of of Yucca; b:
Compressed Air as a Motor; : Wm.
yo distribution of the Ruby and Sapp in th in in the wagon States, with exhibitions
Hypsometri
Os Geological Dizon scoveries among the White ountains in New
Some specimens from ‘ MITH.
On the cause of the Mortality of Fish in Inieinn Hiiver: by P. B. Hoy.
On the Dynamical condition of hs tices sates of Aggregation ; by G. Huvricns.
Am. Jour. Sok--Tarnp Saxmne, Vou. IV, No. 22.—Ocr.,
330 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
Pyrite on the lateral eres of Calcite scalenohedra; by G. HINRI
Simple Arsenic Ap us for the certain dete ction of minute oS ‘of Arsenic
in toxicological ali econo INRICHS.
n the an e Probability as applied to the determination of mental exertions;
y G. HIN: :
Simple nie for pede for quantitative demonstrations in the Physical
Laboratory; by G. Hz
n pana rican an Iron Salsan that was seen to fall in South Africa; by J.
LAWRENCE
The peat i of the oo of Potash and Soda into Carbonates in the
La C
hg
‘time - . by K. T. Cox
Atmospheric Theory of an eliorated climate and an pee etapa: in} the Arctic
Regions in opposition to the Galt Stream ers by wy
A brief statement of effec tors er gems of OE var ina of the
aes year in the vicinity of eis
e Observations in Socceeiahia ‘oan in aca ‘Carolina ; by W. ©.
ing
On the peenie Mammals of the genus aig yy Sepa by E. D. Cope.
On the Eocene genus Synoplotherium; by E Co
On the Geological Age of the Coal he! Wheatus: Shs of D. CopPE.
On the so-called sexual characters of Copepoda; by A. H. TUTTLE.
Remarks on the magnifying powers of vs aa by R. H. Warp.
On a Field-stage for clinical penis scopes; by R. H. Warp
Respiration in Plants;
Cireulation in Insects ; by Ez enn
Organisms in Drin nking Water; by on W. Bascock.
Media for the ee of Entomostroca ; by O. S. Wescorr.
_ Washin ho Gorernm ent Print aS ‘Office Congres
present se are y bel ‘by this Commission. There are two
quite important ones by Mr. Rutherfurd, in which he oe reat ”
opinion that the best form of movable instrument for p otograph-
ing the transit would be a five-inch objective, with seventy menes
focal distance, in a cell allowing of the application, in front of it,
of a flint-glass_ lens of such curves as would shorten the focal dis-
e 8
et
°
)
23
=
ot
o
=
2
2
©
®
—
ter. This is upon the method suc-
cessfully employed by J Mr. Rutherfurd in his own observatory in
New Yor
Prof. Newcomb after discussion of the difficulties of the prope
favors the method Res loyed by Prof. Winlock, which is to pnt
the image of the s y a plane revolving mirror, into a fixed tel
es ae of very Sey focal distance.
wish that the Commission could have given us another p "i
detailing the character and the results of the experiments ses ¢
for by the first appropriation of Congress. It would seem
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 331
the photographs made in these two ways ought before this time
to ha n compared, and the capabilities of each method for
securing the highest degree of accuracy determined. We fear
that the experiments have not been made, and that, if not made
very soon, the efficiency of all the American photographic obser-
vations of the transit will be sadly impaired.
3. Voleanie Eruption on Hawaii.—Sandwich Island papers of
August 21 and 28, announce that the summit crater of Mt. Loa is
again in eruption. A brilliant light is seen at the summit from
all sides of the island, and ejections of columns of lava to a height
of several hundred feet take place; but a flow of lava down the
mountain is not reported.
4. Tidal wave at the Sandwich Islands.—An unusual tidal
wave took place at these islands on August 23, at 12 o’clock noon,
it Honolulu from 12 to 14° there were five distinct waves of
diminishing height, ranging from 12 to 15 minutes. Captain
Williams of the British ketch Ino, reports that on August 18, in
18° 55’ N.and 159° W., the sea for twenty-four hours was violently
breaking and boiling as if on a bar or reef.— Honolulu Gazetie.
_5. A General Index to the Contents of Fourteen Popular Trea-
tues on Natural Philosophy, for the use of Students, Teachers
and Artizans, by a Massachusetts Teacher. 108 pp., 8vo, Ne
York, 1872 (Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co.).—This index will
Wwe were most grateful to be liberated. There are at present 180
men employed in the work of excavation, somewhere outside the
Varies but as they are breaking new ground of consid-
erable depth, much has to be cleared away before any thing can
be discovered. In the general aspect of the old city no changes
are, of course, observable ; but everywhere I marked the judicious
bee
Commendatore Fiorelli, in preserving the ruins, and rendering a
Visit one of instruction as well as of enjoyment. The bodies, or
orms of bodies, in the museum, held together or filled up by plas-
ter of Paris, after the ingenious design of the Commendatore
Fiorelli, had a more than usual interest forme. Their discover
and preparation is an old story now, for I was present at their dis-
interment and preparation “a long time ago,” and sent a detailed
report of all to the Atheneum, but Lrepeat they had an especial
terest for me now, for they were a lively and painful representa-
tion of the sufferings lately inflicted by the same agency. To one
of the bodies still adheres a portion of its dress, and in April last
332 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
many victims in their agony prayed to have their clothes removed;
but it was found to be impossible to do so without flaying them
alive. Another body, that of a female, lies apparently with a
oe at her nose, reminding me of that terrible 28th of
, when even in the streets of Naples it was impossible to walk
without sheltering eyes, nose, and mouth; and when, after gulp-
ho The agency b
is ea illustrated by the heaiaa | in the museum of Pompeii.
Ww. m,
3. Sea-Serpents —Regarding “sea-serpents,” the following note
may fe interesting :—The South African Museum, Cape Town,
recently received a specimen of the Ribbon fish ( Gymnoterus)
fifteen feet long without the tail. It appears that this fish is known
to distant inland fishermen as being forty feet long, an and from its
slender shape and snake-like movement is probably the “sea-ser-
pent” of late years so minutely described by Ba pence From its
M is
second greatest mae oa pisciculture, the first being the conveyance
of fag to Australia.——Vature > Aug.
itis Biwctatioar Tee ms eeting of the British Associa
ton ys nf 3 will be held at Bradford, under the presidency ‘ of
. JO :
Natu
that for August 15, to be had of Macmillan & Co., New
OBITUARY.
Sir us ep Smrru, “ author or - yr pent a of the Zoology
upsettin go “3 a boat, while in an excursion on the coas
mandy. was born in August, 1
APPENDIX.
Euchd's doctrine of Parallels demonstrated.
By ALExX’R C. Twinine, LL.D.
lettered and numbered in a manner to ig eng their proper
they are thus pre-
Evuciip’s Evements, Boox L
Prop. IV. Cor. If two incomplete figures have their sides
€qual, each to each in the same order, and likewise the con-
tained angles equal, each to eaeh in the same order, then the
two sides drawn to complete the figures shall be equal, and the
figures shall be equal and alike in every respect.
* By T. Perronet Thompson, Queen’s Col., Cambridge.
334 A. CO. Twining—Euelid’s Doctrine of Parallels.
Prop. XIX. Cor. In a right angled triangle the side sub-
tending the right angle is greater than either of the sides con-
taining the right angle.
For (17. 1.) the right angle must be greater than either of the
angles opposite to it, and therefore must subtend a greater side.
Prop. XXIV. Cor. In two triangles having unequal angles
contained by sides equal each to each, the angle opposite the
smaller contained angle and subtended by that one of the con-
taining sides which is not less than the other, is greater than the
similarly subtended side of the other triangle.
For DEF is greater than DEG or A BC, which has the
larger included angle.
Prop. XXI a. THEOREM.
If two straight lines intersect, then any third line from one to
the other is greater than a perpendicular dropped from any point
between the third line and the point of intersection.
Let the straight lines A E, A F, intersect in A, and let BC
be perpendicular to A F, and A E be longer than AB, Then
C
any line E D is longer than BC.
For suppose ED not Fig. 1.
i
terior opposite angle E AG, which is impossible. Therefore
EF can neither be less than BC nor equal to it, but must fi
greater; and much more must any other line ED from E be
greater.
A. C. Twining—EKuclid's Doctrine of Parallels. 335
Prop. XXVIII 4. THEOREM.
No triangle can have the sum of its angles greater than two rught
gles,
Let ABC be atriangle. The sum of its angles at A, B,
C, cannot exceed two right angles,
First, let the triangle be Fig. 2.
nght angled at A. From gy
Berect BD perpendicular
to A B, and join CD.
“a the angles at B
and C together to exceed a
right angle. Then because
ABC and BCA ex-
ceed a right angle, but A B :
Cand CBD together only equal a right angle, A C B, contained
by the sides A C, CB, is greater than CBD contained by the
sides D B, BC, equal to the others each to each; and, of these, B C
18 the greater because it subtends the right angle at A (19.1.
Cor.). Therefore (24.1. Cor.) the angle BDC is greater than
the right angle at A. And because the three sides C A, A B,
»U; containing the right angles A, B, are equal to the same, taken
mm the order DB, BA, AC (4.1. Cor.), and the right angles
equal in the order B, A, the angle A CD equals the angle
BDO, and is therefore greater than a right angle. And in like
Manner may it be shown by taking, in A D produced to R, the
bases BG, G I, IR, to any desired number, each equal to A B,
and erecting the perpendiculars GH, IJ, R Y, and so on,
each equal to AC or BD, that the figures BH, GJ, IY, and
SO on, are each equal and alike in every respect to the figure A D.
Complete the figures by joining DH, HJ, J Y, and so on.
Produce CD indefinitely to K.* Because C DB is greater
point M, making I M less than IJ or its equal AC. And in
* It cannot meet A B produced (17.1).
*
336 A. C. Twining—Euclid's Doctrine of Parallels.
angles are right angles, the angles ACO, BDL, are equal
(4.1. Cor.), and COB, DLG, are equal. And in like manner it
may be shown that BO P equals G LM, also that G P Q equals
Z, and so on,—also that OPG equals LMI, and PQI
equal to two right angles,—consequently their equals CO
a are the same, and (14. P is one straight line—
Prop. XXVIII 3. THEOREM.
Through a given point there can be but one parallel to a given
straight line. :
. Let AB be the given line, and C a given point. Drop cA
perpendicular to A B, and through C draw the straight line
CR at right angles to AC; then CR is the only parallel ©
A B through C.
es As above assumed. The demonstration of this proposition in the Proceedings
the American Association, before alluded to, is by a different proess.
-
A. C. Twining—Euchid’s Doctrine of Parallels. 337
For take any line CO making an acute angle A CO with
. From any point Gin the line drop G F perpendicular to
CR. Bisect C F in D, and erect DI perpendicular to C R
and meeting CO inI. In FG, take FH, HK, each equal to
Fie. 3.
DI, and join DH, 1H,IK. Because the sides C D, DI, are
equal to the two D F, F H, and the included angles right angles
the triangles CID, DH F, are equal and alike in every respect
(41.), and the angle CID equal to DHF. But O is
adjacent to DIC at the point I in the straight line C O, and
similarly D HG is adjacent to D H F,—consequently (13.1.)
O and D HG are equal angles.
The angles DCI, CID, of the triangle, right angled at D,
must together (28. 1.), either be equal to or less than a right
the two H K, HI of another triangle, each to each, and the con-
tained angles, are right angles, the triangle HI K is equal and
alike in every respect to I H D, and also, therefore, to DCI.
Therefore the angles HI K, DIC together equal a right angle,
and the three angles CID, DIH, HIK together equal two
right angles, ‘Therefore (14.1.) CI, IK make one and the same
Straight line. Also the two angles FC K and F KC of theright
angled triangle C F K are together equal to aright angle. There-
fore it has been shown that if the oblique angles of the right
angled triangle C D I are together equal to one right angle, then CI
produced will pass througb the point K, making a right angled
triangle C F K, which, equally with C DI, has its oblique angles
together equal to a right angle. Produce CF to J, making
B
338 A. @. Twining—Euchid's Doctrine of Parallels.
“gegen! as RZ, greater than C A, through the extremity
with CR, RZ, aright angled triangle whose oblique angles at C
the line CI produced has met A B and crossed it, and must so
meet and cross in case the angles of C DJ are together two right
angles as first supposed. But, if C I produced does not pass, as
above, through K then the angles of C DI cannot be equal to
two right angles, and therefore they must be less, since
(28 a, 1) they cannot be greater.
Suppose then that the angles of CDI are together less than
two right angles. Then, the construction and proof remaining
as before, the angles of the triangle DF H are less than two
right angles, and since the angles of DI H cannot be greater
than two right angles, the four angles of the quadrilateral I F
are less than four right angles, and each of the equal angles at
I and H is less than a right angle. Therefore [H K is greater
than the angle IHF or its equal HID. Draw H P equal to
ID, or HK, at the angle I H P equal to HID, which is less than
a right angle—and therefore I H P falls within the angle IH 4.
Join IP; then (4. 1.) the angle HPI equals HDI, and 1s
accordingly acute. It may be supposed either that P shall fall
within the triangle I H K, as at p, or else in the side I K, as at
p’, or otherwise outside, as at P. Supposing it at p, let Hp be
produced to meet IK in p’. Then Hp’ is greater than Hp oF
its equal H K, and consequently the angle Hp’ K is less than
H Kp’ (19.1) being subtended by the less side. But HKI's
acute (17.1) because [HK is obtuse. Much more, then, 18
H p’ K acute and its adjacent angle H p'I obtuse; and yet more
is the exterior angle (16.1) Hp I obtuse—which is contrary '0
the construction, as already proved. Therefore P does not fall
within THK; and, similarly, it cannot fall in IK, as atP-
Therefore P must fall outside, and make the angle H I P greater
than HIK. But because, by what has been shown, DI G less
A. C. Twining—FHuclid’s Doctrine of Parallels. 339
DIH, or the angle HIG, is greater than DHG less IHG, or
the angle DH I, or its equal HIP, by construction, the angle
HIG is greater than HI P, and much more greater than HI K.
Therefore the line CI produced to G makes HG greater than
K, if the angles of C DI are together less than two right
angles—that is, equally, makes HG greater than HK, if OI
produced does not pass through K. But if CI produced passes
through K, then is HG by supposition not greater than H K,
and the angles of CD I accordingly are not less than but (28 a. I)
equal to two right angles, and Cl meets A B.
JoinI A. It has been shown that if CI produced meets K,
or makes with I A the angle AIK, it must meet A B, and also
that if it does not meef K it makes with I A an angle LAG
within I A K, and therefore much more must it meet AB. There-
fore CI produced must meet AB, whether it does or does
not pass through K—that is, i must meet AB. And the same
may be proved on the other side of AC. Therefore C R is the
only line through C which cannot be produced to meet AB.
Remarks.
1st. The two principal propositions of the foregoing demon-
Stration are, no doubt, too difficult for beginners. hat fact,
in themselves, prime qualities, they do not of necessity counter-
balance the advantage of a system like Euclid’s, preéminent in
0
more than average difficulty, was not on that account refused
by its author a place in due order among his elementary proposi-
ons; and, though unsatisfactory in its concluding inference,
and therefore omitted in subsequent editions, it will ever remain
Worthy of preservation and of study by reason of the beauty and
Skill of its conception and conduct.
- It is quite otherwise, however, with the so-called
analytic or functional proof by the same author, which has been
made the subject of earnest controversy. This, it is familiarly
nown, depended upon the consideration that in any given tri-
angle the given base and the given angles at the base determine
340 A. ©. Twining—Fuclid’s Doctrine of Parallels.
the third angle. Therefore, it was argued, this third angle is a
function of the two angles and the side—but a function into
which the side cannot in fact enter, because a (ine cannot enter
into the composition of an angle,—on which account the two
Qu
(4)
iad
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por
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on
(a>)
i]
-e
°
<4
oO
for)
to
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o
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ou
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point, whatever the bases, because they so meet with the assumed
base. On this assumption the entire doctrine would follow
apace from the ordinary rudiments of geometry.
Mr. T. P. Thompson, the author before alluded to, has
himself introduced into his above-mentioned modification of
W X, of unlimited length both ways, travel along the axis from
the vertex A toward Z, till it cuts the axis in M; and it has
been shown (28p, 1 Cor.) that during such travel it cannot cease
to cut the series, &¢.” The fatal objection is that W X 1s 80
restricted by the conditions of its cutting that, although ever
approaching the point M, it cannot be proved capable of reach-
e grounds of this objection will be made yet more
clear in the recasting of Mr. Thompson’s proof, which follows.
A. C. Twining—Euclid’s Doctrine of Parallels. 341
Thompson’s Proof transformed and simplified.
In our here abbreviated process, Mr. Thompson’s chain of
proof will be presented unbroken (and in some parts even
a fortiori) but in propositions involving altogether not one-third
the bulk and labor of Mr. Thompson’s own method. This
Statement includes our antecedent demonstration (p. 3) that no
triangle can have the sum of tts angles greater than two right angles ;
ut, aside from this, the proof is reduced in compass to one-tenth.
It will be the purport of this our transformed process—equally
as it was of Mr. Thompson’s process—to show that no triangle
can have the sum of its angles less than two right angles.
_¥or—looking back to the figure of our xxviii a—if ABC,
right angled at A, is supposed to be such a triangle, and the
quadrilateral (or tessera—so called by Thompson) be constructed
as before, then, since the angles of BCD cannot exceed two
right angles, the four angles of the tessera are less than four
night angles, and the equal angles AC D, BDC, are each less
than a right angle. Construct, as below, Thompson’s figure
under his Caption xxviii E—and with the saine! designating
letters—in which QM P is astraight line of bases on which the
tesseras A on the
8a polygon. Join BC, CD, DE; then ABC,=ACB, must
han ACD,=BDC, even were ABD one line, and
much more, as easily shown, for the angle at B. But BI
/ 4 D, is greater than BDO, and much more than ACB. In
like manner may it be shown by joining E F, FG, that the equal
cusps HG F, D FG are greater than the cusps CED, BDE. In
the same manner, also, if A Z is an axis perpendicular to B C—
and easily shown to be normal also to ED, G F—it may be proved
that if an indefinite line W X moves from A toward Z, keeping at
Tight angles to the axis, it shall make the cusps formed by it at I
and H greater than the preceding cusps at G and F, and so on
342 A. C. Twining—Euclid’s Doctrine of Parallels,
indefinitely. Again, the perpendiculars C O, E Q, &., and BN,
DP, &c., to the straight line Q P, can never meet each other or
the axis,—consequently the cusps must each, as EG F, ;
be less than the angles EG T, DFS, respectively (that is, than
half either of the equal angles of the equiangular and equilateral
polygon IGECAB , &c.); for, if otherwise, G F would
e one and the same straight line which cuts another straight
line T'S in two points T and §, or beyond them.
Again, let W X cut the axis at any intermediate position, as
Y, within the tessera EH D F G. It cannot cut the line ED
or GF, since all three are normal to A Z. Therefore it cuts the
sides EG, DF, of that tessera in V, U, making angles or cusps
V UD, UVE, which cannot be less than EGF, DFG, respectively,
because, if so, the four angles of the tessera EH F must exceed four
right angles. Therefore the cusps formed at V and U are each
greater than a given angle ACB. And because TG F is less
than a tight angle, T G W’ is greater, and the half angle T GI of
the polygon will be within it,—so that W X, after passage
through any tessera, as ET, of the entire series, may enter and
traverse another, as IT, and cut the polygon in the sides GI,
F Therefore W X, as it approaches to Q P, can never cease
to cut the polygon (and at an angle which can be shown, as
above, to be greater than a given angle). Let it move on at right
angles to the axis till it reaches M. It will then coincide with
the straight line of bases QP, which therefore will somewhere
cut the polygon. That is, the base of some one of the tesseras
will cut its side opposite the base—which is impossible; com
sae teat the original supposition is also impossible.
his exhibits with fidelity Mr. Thompson’s complete pro-
cess,—only excluding his supposition that the cusps may at
length come to equal or exceed half the constant angle of the
polygonal series by proving such supposition itself to be impos-
sible. The exceptional point, as already remarked, is the last
step of the process—that of WX moving forward to coincide
with M. Indeed, beginning back of that step, and at the close.
of the one preceding it, the really legitimate conclusion would be
deduced as follows: “ But W X cannot actually reach M during
this consecutive intersection of the tesseras. For suppose it to
advance to M while cutting the polygonal series, as in I, H;
then IM, which makes the angle IMQ, must also make an
equal vertical angle (15-1) on the opposite side of Q P, instead
f HM P on the same side,—which last is impossible.” _
It would, no doubt, be urged by our author that if wx
cuts the polygon when in the position Y, but ceases to cut ID
the position M, it could not but be that the cuttin ig c
o
—
%
O. C. Marsh—New Fossil Mammals. 343
definite tessera,—and especially that no such disruption is sup-
posable between lines that never cease to cross one another at
an appreciable angle. The infirmity of all this, however, is
sufficiently exposed by the inquiry how it appears that W
will not have traversed and cut the polygonal series throughout
us utmost capacity of extension, while yet at a limiting position
short of M—even as C O (referring back to the figure under our
Caption xxviii B) will have traversed and cut A B throughout
Its utmost capacity of extension when it has reached the
limit C R.
This new exemplification, supplied by our author’s own labors,
and supplementing his own history of fruitless attempts multi-
pled on this subject, in spite of failures in the past, only affords
hew evidence how amply any approved demonstration, now or
hereafter, of the doctrine of parallels will be recognized and
esteemed as having accomplished a scientific desideratum.
Notice of some Remarkable Fossil Mammals; by O. C. MARSH.
The Museum of Yale College has recently received the
Temains of several fossil mammals, new to science and of
great interest. One of these, which is represented by the entire
around its lateral and posterior margins an enormous crest. On
Summits are obtuse, and nearly round. They are solid, eet
at the base, which is perforated by the upper extremity of the
canine. Near the anterior margin of the nasals there is still
another pair of horn cores, which are near together, and have
obliquely compressed summits. The nasal opening was small.
The premaxillaries are slender, and without teeth.
The upper canines are greatly elongated, slightly curved, and
itudi e lower portion is thin and
344 0. C. Marsh—New Fossil Bird.
posed of two transverse ridges, separated externally, and meet-
ing at the inner extremities.
The skull measures about 28°5 inches (722°™™:), in length ;
85 inches (202.™™-), in width over the orbits; 6°75 inches
(169™™-) between the summits of the maxillary horn Sons and
25 (88™™) between the tops of the nasal cores. The m xilla ary
horn cores are about 8 inches, or 75™™ in height. The canine
is 9-25 inches (232:™™-) in length below the jaw, 64°™™"’, in lon-
gitudinal diameter at base, 25°" in transverse diamete er. The
molar teeth occupy a space of 150-™™-, and the last upper molar
has an antero-posterior diameter of 36-™™, The species may be
be called Dinoceras mirabilis. The present animal was nearly
as large as an nha The remains now known are from the
Eocene of Wyom
Another aon is elical by portions of a skull with teeth,
and some other ragmentary remains. his specimen ers
essentially from Dinoceras mirabilis, in the upper molar teeth,
the last of the series =F proportionally much larger than the
corresponding tooth in that species, and having, moreover, 4
broad floor extending bankas between the posterior crest and
the basal ridge. The length of the upper molar series of six
teeth is 163°™™-, the last true molar being 45°™™ in antero-pos
terior Sianeli and also in transverse dikinieor This species,
equalled D. mirabilis in size, and may be called wg lacus-
remains are also from the Eocene of Wyoming.
The species of Dinoceras, and those of Tinoceras, represent &
distinct order which may be called Dinocerea, A full descrip:
tion of these interesting mammals will be given at an early day.
Notice of a New and Remarkable Fossil Bird ; by O. C. MARSB-
One of the most on a of recent discoveries in Paleon-
0
ssil bird, found, during yD
eantsatoe "The remains indicate an aquatic bird, about 4
large as a pigeon, and differing widely from all known birds,
in having biconcave vertebroe e cervical, dorsal, and cau udal
vertebre preserved all show this character, the ends of the
centra resembling those in Plesiosaurus. The rest of the
skeleton presents no marked dggintion from the page avi
type. e wings were large in proportion to the posterior
extremities. me humeru rigs 586" in length, and has se
radial crest strongly developed. The femur is small, and has
ie transversely. The t ibia is slender,
and 445™™- long. Its distal end is incurved, as in $ pee
birds, but has no supratendinal bridge. This species il
called Ichthyornis dispar. A more complete oman ‘ri
appear in an early number of this Journal.
Yale College, Sept. 26th, 1872.
AM. JOUR. SCI. AND ARTS, Ill, Vol. IV. Plate Ill.
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES]
Art. XL—A Theory of the Formation of the great Features of
the Karth’s Surface; by JoserpH LEConvs, Prof. Geol. and
at. Hist, University of California.
that this paper might, very appropriately, have been entitled
A general theory of igneous agencies.” The general and
first effect of igneous agency is, evidently, the formation of
Continents, sea bottoms and mountain chains. Volcanoes and
earthquakes are secondary phenomena—they are but occa-
Stonal accidents attending the slow march of these grander effects.
ceording to Humboldt, all the effects grouped under the
Seneral head of igneous agency are the result of “the reaction
Y the interior on the crust of the earth.” This formula, although
T too vague and general to deserve the name of a theory,
Must, we believe, form the point of departure of every true
theory. But in de arting from this vague formula, only the
most confused sins contradictory notions seem to prevail
Amongst geologists. We have therefore thought that, on a sub-
Ject of such vital importance, lying as it does at the very found-
ation of theoretic geology, any light, or even m8 more defi-
hite statement than now exists, might be considered timely.
I have, for many years, thought much on the subject, and
_ Stfiven to emerge from the chaos which now exists into some-
thing like clearness of conception. I here present, with some
hesitation, the results, hoping that they may serve, at least, as
ints in the right direction. ‘
Aw. Jour, 8c1.—Tarap — Vou. 1V, No, 28.—Nov., 1872.
346 J. LeConte—Formation of the
to wrinkle, 1. e., to bend into alternate convex and concave arches,
which form respectively the continents and sea-bottoms. The
Continents and sea-bottoms.—If we regard the earth as consist-
ing of a solid crust sustained as a floating body upon a liquid,
the least reflection suffices to convince us that the greater inequalt-
ties of the surface cannot be produced by alternate convex and con-
cave bendings of the crust like those shown in fig. 1, in which @
is the continental and } the oceanic crust, and J/ the sea level.
No such arch as that producing a continent 3000 to 6000 miles
across), should sustain itself The arch a would break <
* Phil. Trans., May, 1862.
Features of the Earth's Surface. 347
interior. The accompanying diagram (fig. 2) is an ideal repre-
sentation of what must be the general character of the crust on
this view. As before, a is the continental and 6 the oceanic
crust. For simplicity’s sake, in all these diagrams, the crust is
represented as spread out on a plane. If we admit that the
general constitution of the earth is that of a solid crust cover-
ing a liquid interior, I cannot see how the above conclusion
can be avoided.
assumed this all along, for there could not be a crust otherwise.
2. The material of the crust must expand in solidifying, i. e., in
coming crust. 3. Some portions of the crust must cool and
thicken faster than others; these more rapidly thickening por-
tions becoming the continents. Under these three conditions
we nay account for continents and sea-bottoms as follows. _
Suppose a liquid earth consisting of heterogeneous materi
covered with a thin crust of solid matter, cooling and the crust
thickening everywhere by additions to its lower surface. Evi-
dently the more conductive portions would cool and thicken
than the less conductive portions. Thus the inequalities
- Would commence on the lower surface, as in fig. 8. But such
» oe
SQ
SS
of things represented by fig. 2 is assumed. <A c ,
€ same process, viz: the more rapid eens. 2 of the conti-
nental portions a a, would cause these to rise higher and higher,
and the ocean bottoms to sink deeper and deeper.
us, then, by this view, the formation of continents and sea-
bottoms, and the increase in height and size of the former, and
in depth of the latter, is due to the unequal thickening of a float-
9 crust by unequal cooling.
Mountain chains.—If mountain chains were only narrow
wrinkles on the earth's surface, we might suppose it possible
348 J. LeConte—Formation of the
d
avoid the conclusion that they too, if they rest on a liquid
mass beneath, must be sustained by a s’milar bulge on the lower
surface of the solid crust. The accompanying diagram (fig 4)
4.
mously exaggerated.
The condition of the solid crust represented by figs. 2 and 4,
on th
therefore eae of the thinner portions, viz:
This difficulty seems to be fatal.
Features of the Earth's Surface. 349.
The theory above presented, viz: the formation of continents
and sea-bottoms by unequal thickening of a floating crust, by
unequal cooling, may, with skillful modification and by adding
hypothesis to hypothesis, be made to account for most of the
granite and other igneous rocks do not expand in the act of
solidifying, but on the contrary, according to the experiments
of Bischof, notably contract.
6. The solid shell of the earth, if there be any such, may be
Proved to be much thicker than is usually supposed by geolo-
gists of the interior-fluidity school The principal argument
for the liquidity of the earth beneath a comparatively thin shell
18 based upon the increasing temperature of the earth as we go
downward into the interior. “The rate of 1° for every 50 feet
of descent would give 8000°, the fusing point of iron, at a
depth of 28 miles.” At this temperature nearly all rocks
Let s s (fig. 5) be the surface of the earth, and a B depth along
any radius) Taking A B as an abciss, let the increasing heat
represented by ordinates. Now, if the density and con-
ductivity of the earth were constant, then the heat would
mcrease at uniform rate, and would therefore be correctly
represented by the straight line cp. At the rate of 1° for
every 50 feet we would reach the heat ordinate ¢¢ of 8000° and
the melting point of rocks at the depth of 28 miles But
350 J. LeConte—Formation of the
since the density of the earth increases toward the center, it is
almost certain that the conductivity increases also. The effect
of this would be to diminish the rate of in-
creasing temperature, which would there-
ore be correctly represented by a curved
line C BE, and not the straight line c D.
Under these conditions the ordinate of
3000° on the curved line would not b
reached at 28 miles, but at some point ¢
farther down, say 40 miles from surface.
But having finally reached the temperature
of 3000°, which we assume as the fusing
pet of rocks in our furnaces, we would,
y no means, find the rocks in a state of
f rock would undoubtedly very
greatly elevate the fusing point. How much we know not;
but let us suppose to 3500°. To find the ordinate of 3500° on
the curve, we must go still deeper to some point ¢’, perhaps 60
or more miles from the surface. But here again we would fail
to reach the lower limit of the solid crust, because the fusing
point is again elevated above 3500° by the still greater pressure.
And thus the fusing point flies before the increasing temper
ture; and where in this chase the former would overtake the
latter, or whether it would ever overtake it at all, would depend
on the rate of increase in the two cases. We have not at
present the data to determine these.
e conclusion from this reasoning is, that the crust 18 Cer
tainly much thicker than is usually supposed ; so thick, indeed,
that the focus of voleanoes and earthquakes must be within us
thickness ; and it even becomes doubtful whether there be any
general fluid interior at a
ec. This doubt is entirely confirmed, according to the -
physicists and mathematicians, by the effect of the sun 4”
moon on the earth in producing precession and nuiation, on
producing tides. In all these phenomena the earth, even Unt is
the most powerful distorting forces, behaves like a perfectly ™ 4
solid, and not at all like a liquid or a partly liquid body. ~
reasoning of Hopkins, based upon the amount of proces
and nutation, and his conclusion that the solid shell of thi
earth cannot be less than 1000 miles thick, is well known. ed pe!
the majority of physicists and mathematicians it 1s regard b
menods. Seremban doubts have been thrown poe ee it DY
men of high ability. But Thomson’s argument, drawP "|
the behavior of ds cacth under the cdegencrathe ininest
of the sun and moon, is as yet untouched. It seems to ihe
impregnable. The result of Thomson's reasoning is, that’
Features of the Earth's Surface. 351 -
earth as a whole is certainly more rigid than a globe of solid glass,
and probably more rigid than a solid globe of stel.* We have
already shown how fatally this extreme rigidity operates on
any theory which attributes the inequalities of the earth’s sur-
face to bendings of a solid crust.
- Very recently my attention has been directed by my
brother, Prof. John LeUonte, to another fact bearing strongly
in the same direction, viz: the form of the equatorial section of
the earth. If the earth were an exact spheroid of revolution,
There is, as far as we know, but one argument of a general
nature, which has recently been brought forward in favor of
the interior liquidity of the earth, viz: the three laws of earth-
quake occurrence rendered probable by Alexis Perry. The
laws are as follows:
n
to follow the law of fides. Many geologists seem to think that
* Phil. Trans., May, 1862. Thomson & Tait, Nat. Phil., p. 689.
t Cosmos, vol. iv, p. 19, Sabine’s edition.
352 J. LeConte—Formation of the
to us that, on the supposition of such an interior liquid, the
force produced by the moon in passing over might turn the
scale in favor of the upward force, and thus determine the =
ture of the strata, and therefore the occurrence of an earth
quake? :
The foregoing objections have induced many of the best
geologists to believe that the earth is either solid or else that
the solid crust is so thick that all igneous phenomena have thei
origin within the limits of that crust: and that therefore the
Suppose a solid earth of oblate spheroid form and even SWF
face, covered with a universal ocean and cooling*b paneer
quent contraction along each radius would be equal, anc
s cause is concerned, the earth, though becom"
ocean. But such homogeneousness could not be expected. se,
does it exist. In a heterogeneous earth thus cooling, 474
Features of the Earth's Surface. 3538
greater conductivity would cool more rapidly and therefore con;
tract more rapidly in a radial direction. These more conductive
areas, with shorter radii AC, Ac (fig.
6), would form the sea-bottoms, while
the less conductive and therefore
the less radially contracted portions
B B would become land surfaces.
would not check the process; for
Sequent unequal contraction. It seems probable, therefore,
that the same equality still exists, and that, therefore, the mat-
ter along the shorter oceanic radi; is denser than along the longer
Continental radii. If, farther, we suppose great mountain pla-
teau-masses also to be formed by unequal radial contraction,
According to Archdeacon Pratt,* the form of the Indian are
Indicates unmistakably that continental matter and especially
Himalayan matter is less dense than sub-oceanic matter. i
view of the origin of the great inequalities of the earth seems
to be something like what I have presented, since he states his
belief that the absolute quantity of matter along different radii
1s the same. T have stated this as a possib/e mode of formation
of great plateau-masses. As a general fact, however, I account
or mountain chains in an entirely different manner, which I
Row proceed to explain.
* Phil. Mag., vol. xli, p. 307, 1871.
od
354 J. LeConte—Formation of the
, 2. Mountain Chains.
A cooling earth may be regarded as composed of concentric
isothermal shells, each cooling by conduction, and in the case
of liquid also by convection to the next outer and the outer-
most by radiation into space. Furthermore under these condi-
le ss. é
No other view but this will, I think, satisfactorily explain
age.
It is now established beyond the possibility of a doubt, by
the beautiful observations and experiments of harpe, Soe
by pow
ful pressure perpendicular to the planes of cleavage, by which
the whole rock-mass has been mashed together and shortened m
that direction, and correspondingly extended in the direction of
the planes of cleavage. As the planes of cleavage are usually
ination. This plication is always associated with cleavage, a
vice versa, cleavage, when the rock material is suitable for devel
Features of the Earth's Surface. 355
oping this structure, is always associated with plication; and
both are associated with mountain chains
A mashing together horizontally and an extension vertically,
or an up-swelling of the mass, is therefore proved in slaty cleay-
age, and thus also in mountain chains where slaty cleavage
occurs. It only remains to show that the amount of mashin
in one direction and extension in the other, absolutely pived
in these cases, is fu/ly adequate to account for the upheaval of the
greatest mountain chains.
By the observations of Sorby and Haughton, taking an ideal
cube of the original unsqueezed mass, the ratio of the greatest
diameter (in the plane of cleavage), to the least diameter (per-
pendicular to cleavage), becomes, after squeezing, sometimes
21, sometimes 4:1, 6:1, 9:1, and even sometimes 1! : 1.
According to Sorby, the average is 5 or 6: 1. Now it is evi-
dent that of the three rectangular diameters of such a cube,
one vertical and two horizontal, one of them, the horizontal in
the direction of pressure, would be shortened, another, the ver-
teal, would be elongated, while the third, the horizontal at right
angles to pressure, would be unchanged, because in the rock-
mass yielding could not take place in that direction. It follows
then that the change of the original diameters in either diree-
tion, by compression or elongation, would be the sguare roots of
the ratios mentioned above. Thus if a cube of 3 inches diam-
eter be crushed together horizontally, and allowed to exten
only vertically, until its previously equal diameters become as
‘1, it is evident that the vertical diameter has been increased
and the horizontal diameter diminished 8 times. Taking 6:1
ual: we may assert that a cleaved rocks the whole mass jas
swelled up 24 (2°45) times ats original thickness. Suppose then a
br ?
10,000 feet thickness would be swelled to 25,000 feet, making an
actual elevation of the surface of 15,000 feet. Now we actually
~eed strata not only 10,000 but 20,000, and even 40,000 feet
hick,
I think, therefore, I am justified in asserting that the phe-
rate 2?
[To be concluded. ]
ad
356 C. A. Young—Catalogque of bright lines
Art. XLL—Letter to the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Sur-
vey, containing a Catalogue of bright lines in the Spectrum of the
Solar Atmosphere, observed at Sherman, Wyoming Territory,
U. S. A., during July and August, 1872; by Prof C. A.
Youne, of Dartmouth College.
Prof. B. Perrce, Supt. U.S. C. S., &e., &e. :
Dear Sir—Without waiting to complete my entire report of
the spectroscopic work at Sherman, I send for immediate pub-
lication, should you think proper, a list of the bright lines
observed in the spectrum of the chromosphere during the past
summer.
The great altitude of the station (nearly 8,300 feet), and the
consequent atmospheric conditions, were attended with even
greater advantages for my special work than had been really
expected, although I was never quite able to realize my
hope of seeing all the Fraunhofer lines reversed, unless once
or twice for a moment, during some unusual disturbances of the
. ou :
oe of these bright lines and their behavior would y ield
valuable information as to the constitution and habitudes
of the solar atmosphere.
In the catalogue, the first column contains simply a referenc®
number: a ¢ refers to a note at the end of the catalogue. |
The numbers in the second column refer to my “ Preliminary
Catalogue,” containing 108 lines, which was published a year
: : : . a
ago in the “ American Journal of Science.” In this column
observations of Lockyer, Janssen, Rayet and Secchi), it is pbaere ae
possible that some other lines ought to be marked in the a
manner. : ie
in the Spectrum of the Solar Atmosphere. 7 357
choff and Angstrém which accompany their respective
atlases. In the preliminary catalogue the numbers were derived
om the maps; hence some slight discrepancies in the tenths
of division.
The fifth column, marked F, contains a rough estimate of
the percentage of frequency with which the lines were seen
ring the six weeks of observation ; and the sixth column, B,
4 similar estimate of their maximum brightness compared with
that of the hydrogen line C.
1€ variations of brilliance, however, when the chromosphere
Was much disturbed, were so considerable and so sudden that
no very great weight can be assigned to the numbers given.
Nor is it to be inferred that lines which have in the table the
Same index of brightness were always equally bright. On cer-
tain occasions one set of lines would be particularly conspicu- *
atts’ Index of Spectra.” Since the positions of the lines in
the latter work are given only to the nearest unit of “Angstrém’s
Scale,” I have marked the coincidences indicated by it with a (w),
*
Considering them less certain than those shown by the maps.
358 C. A. Young—Catalogue of bright lines
with a somewhat less degree of probability, zine, erbium and
re are some coinci-
No one, of course, can fail to be struck with the number of
cases in which lines have associated’ with them the symbols of
two or more elements. The coincidences are too many and too
close to be all the result of accident, as for instance in the case
of iron and calcium, or iron and titanium.
seems rather the most probable, is that the metals operated
upon by the observer who mapped their spectra, were not abso-
lutely pure—either the iron contained traces of calcium and
titanium, or vice versa. this supposition is excluded, then
we seem to be driven to the conclusion that there is some suc
similarity between the molecules of the different metals as ren-
ders them susceptible of certain synchronous periods of vibra-
tions—a resemblance, as regards the manner in which the mole-
cules are built up out of the constituent atoms, sufficient to
establish between them an important physical (and probably
chemical) relationship.
ave prefixed to the catalogue a table showing the number
of lines of each substance, or combination of substances, ob-
served in the chromosphere spectrum; omitting, however, OXY
gen, nitrogen ‘and bromine, since with one exception (line 23
neither of them ever stands alone, or accounts for any lines not
otherwise explained.
e instruments and methods of obseryation were the same
employed in the construction of the Preliminary Casalogy
Telescope, 9,4; inches aperture—spectroscope automatic, wit
dispersive force of 12 prisms. :
e approximate geographical position of Sherman 1s Lon.
1" 58-2™ west of Washington; Lat. 41°07’; Altitude above se®
level 8,280 feet; mean height of barometer about 22°1 inches
Table showing the num incidences between the bright lines observed in the spe
trum of the pte ys those of the ase oa chemical elements.
Fe, Ti, Siw) 1 Unknown, ; 52 7
“ Ba, Scw) Ti, Sew) 3 Fe, 4 | “gg
Sow Zncw) # 2 Fe 3 | es
gE tie 11-8 bela
A w
: Li, & “ Zn, 1 Mn, 6 -
Ti, Ba, Siw) L Ca, Cd, 1 Ce, 5 ‘4
Ba, La, Ecw) L #. Oe, 1 H, +
tical einai
|
orm oo ro ps | a
at id
Oo © oo -7
++
PSO,
in the Spectrum of the Solar Atmosphere.
359
TABLE—continued.
Fe, Ca, 10 Ca, Co, 1 Na, 4 6
Ti, 9 “ Or, 1 Cr, aor ae
aioli 4 so x 1 Mg, 3 4
5 Cr, 3 Sr, 3 6
Ba, 2 Ew) 2 9
ee 2 Mn, Zn, 1 Ni, 2 6
“ Eq) 2 Co, 1 5
Cr, Eqw) 1 Cu, 1 2
spies 6: ? 1 La, 1 3
= on 1 Ce, Co, 1 Ru, Ir, 2 1
egtae.T'2 1 Cd, 1
“Na, 1 Na, Cu, 1 i, 1
“og (w) 1
ea 1 /|lines mark’d
| with a * 14
The numbers in the last column denote the whole number of times that the sym-
bol of each element appears in the catalogue, either singly or combined with others
Lali alll od ell and
O- oem S
4 pad ed
~T
ee
Catalogue of bright lines in the Spectrum of the Chromosphere. 1872.
K. A. | F.|B. E. pXo.)P. C, K. a as B.| E.
534-0*!7055-2/100) 1: 38 | 114/D,1002°8 58950, 50/30} Na,
654°3 |6676°9| 25| 50) Fe, Bag) 939 | 12+/D .1006°8 58890 50/30} Na,
0.694'1 |6561-8|100/10¢ H, 40 101 3°0| 2 Fe,
7114 6515-5] 15) at 131,10 6°5*|5874-9 10
718°7 |6496-0) 18] £ Ba, 42 1031°8 |5852°7, 8 Ba,
7317 |6461°7 ‘ Ca. 43 1135°1 |5708°3 Fe,
734°0 |6453°8| 10] ¢ 44 1151°1 |5687°2 Na,
740°9 |6438°] 2| Ca, Cd, [45 1154°2 |5683°5| 5, $
744°3 |6429°9) 20) 4 46 1155-8 |5681°5 Na, Fe, Nw)
750°1 |6415-¢ ‘ 47 1165-7 |5667°8 Sew
756.9 |6399-C ‘ Fe, 48 1167-0 |5666°0
759-3 |6392°¢ 1 Fe, 49 1170°6 |5661°5| 15 2|Fe, Ti, Ew)
767-2* |6373-? ‘ 50 11750 |5656°7| 8 3| Saw) Now
768-2* 6371-7 2 51 1176°6 |5654°4 Fe,
7783 |6346:1/ 10| 4| Ruth, Ir, [52 1187-1 |5640°2 Siw
823°5 |6245-4 t Fe, 53 1189°3 |5637°3
827°6 |6237°: 54 200-6 |56 Fe,
830-2 |6231-E Fe, 55 1207-3 [56145 Fe,
836°5 |6218°3|) Ti, 56 1229°6 Ca,
839-2 |6214°1| ; a5; 57 1231°3 [558 Fe,
845°7 |6199°¢ Fe, [58 | 14+) 1274:2 |5534°1) 50,12] Ba, Fe, Sr,
849°7 |6190°5| 1 Fe, 59 | 15 | 1281-3 |5525°9) 4 Fe,
859°7 |6168°3| ; Ca, 60 1287°5 |5518°7) 1 Ba,
863-9 |6161°5 : Ca, 61 1298-9 [5505-8 Fe
be 6148") 2| Fe,Eqw) 462 1303°5 |5500°5 e,
871-4 |6146°8 ‘ 63 1306-7 |5496°6 Fe, Ew)
874°3 |6140°6| 25) 1 Ba, 64 1320°6 |5480°2) 2) 1| Ti, Sr,
§ 8765 |6136- 65 1324°8 |5475 1} Ni
{877-0 |6135°¢ Fe, , [66 1328°7 |5472°3 :
88 241+ 3} Ca, Co, 967 1337°0 |5462°3 1) Fe, Now)
890°2 |6109* Ba, 16 | 1343°5 |5454°7| 10) 4 Fe,
894°9 |6101°% 2 'Ca,Li,Zncw)f69 | 17 | 1351-1 |5445-9, 10) 4|Fe,Ti, Brow)
903-1 |6083°1 ‘ Ti, 70 1360°9 |5435°4) 5) 2) Zn, Br
912-1 |6064:E 2| Fe,Ti, [71 1362°9 |5433°0 2 Fe,
933°8 |6018°0| : Ba, 72¢| 18 | 1364°3 |5431°8) 8 5
949-4 5990-0} 10) 4 73 | 19 | 1367-0 |5428°8 3} Fe, Ti,
9 5913" ] Fe, 74 | 20 | 1372-1 "6424° 25, 6| Ba,Ti,Scw)
A Young— Catalogue of bright lines
ee ww bo
noc
be th et eT
~~
oP
& © bo be
So mem BS OS CO OOD OD ee +
1752
1765- - 5087"
=I
aH
ae apo
3 |504
2.
2251°3*/4712°5
2309°5 |4666°3
5096°E
TABLE—continued.
a a A iF IB
5) 2; Ti, Mn, 5195-0
2| 2 Fe, 5194°1
4), 2) Mncwy 5188°2
2} 1} Fe, Ni, 5187°3
2| 2 Cr, 5185°1
2) 1 Fe, 5183°
5| 3| Fe, Ti, 5172°0
2) 1). Mn, 5168°3
4; 2) Fe, Ti, 5166°7
2) 1). Fe, Ce, 160°? 1
Sf 2 <1, 5154°8 iL
10| 3 Fe, 5152" 1
ie Fe, 5150°% 2
1} 1 Fe, 5142°2 2
1} 1 Fe, 5133" 1
20)10 Fe, 5130-8 1
4| 2) Fe, Co, Ce, 5128°€ 1
] 1 512677 1
1} 2\Fe, Mn, mS 51 5125°5 2
5} 2) Ti, Zn 5124°4 1
6 4 5123°2 1
| 5} 2 Fe, 5121°0 1
5} 2 Fe, 5L19'9 1
6} 2 5114°9 1
1} Ty: 5108°8 2
9050) Fe,? Oy? 5107°( l
3} 1 5098")
]
0
5083°
5OTTS
5047°8
5030° ;
5023°6
© Ol MH OS WD DS BD BD MS obed et ed ee
ee
OD bh
NH bo bo
eee ae ee
tn the Spectrum of the Solar Atmosphere. 361
TABLE—continued.
NolPo| x. | 4 |B Ue ee a
l 2314°3 |4663°3| 2) 1 2680°0 |4407°7| 1 Fe, Ca,
2323°0 |4656°0| 2| J 26868 44042) 1 Fe,
3 165 | 2358-4 |4629-0! 15) § 2696-0 4398°5 1! 1) Ti, Ce, Bias.
t 2359°5*/4628'2/ | J 2698'2 |4396°5| 1| $
2369°7 |4620°3| 1) 1 87 | 2702°5 |4394°6| 15| :
2410°2 |4589°4) 1) J 2715°2 4388°5) 1 'e?
2412°8 |4587°5) 2) 2 88 | 2718°5 |4384-7| 8] 2! Ca, Ce, _
66 | 2419-3 /4583-2) 15) € 2720°2 |4383°E
429°5 |4576°0) 4! 5 89 | 2721°6 /4382°8) 1/1] Fe, Or,
) 67 | 2435-5 |4571-4| 10) 4 2725°8 |4380°4| 1) ]
L 6 443-9 |4564°8| 10] 3 2728-0 |4379- ] Ca,
2 69 | 2446-6 |4563-2| Ol 6 90 | 2733-7 |4375°5) | Fe,
2452-1 |4559°E 2 91 | 2736°9 |4374°2| &§ Siw
j 2454-1 |4558-1 1 2762°0 |4359°1| 1 Cr,
70 | 2457-9 |4555-3) 10] | 92! 2775-7 |4351°8) ; Cr,
T1 | 2461-2 3°4| 10) £ 93¢| 2795-7 |4340-1/100\6: H,
J 2463-4 |4551°8) 1] 1 2798-0 |4338-2| 10] : Cr,
372 | 2467-6 |4549-9| 101 § 2805-4 |4335° La,
4 2480-8 |4539-2' 2! 1 2823-4 |4324-
3 5486°6 |4535°5) ¢ 2830-7 |4320- Ti, Ow)
\14 | 2489-4 [4533-2| ¢ 43-0 |4313°%
| 490°5 /4532°] 94 |G.2854-2 |4307-2| 3] 2] Ca, Fe.
76 | 2502-2 |4524-4| 3) ¢ 2867-7 2| Ca, Fe,
TT | 2605-6 |4599-¢ 96 | 2874-2 |4298-¢ Ca,
517-0 |4514-¢ 97 894°5 |4289-2 Cr, Ca,Ce;w)
2518-4 4513+ ] 98 | 2928-5 |4274°6 1} Cr, ©
527-0 |4506-¢ } 99 | 2961-2 |4260-0 Fe,
78 | 2537-1 |4500°3| 15] ¢ 100 | 2996-2 |4245-2| 30) : Fe,
79 | 2552-4 |4490-9| 20) § 3018-0 |4235°5| 30) ¢ Fe,
) 80 | 2555-0 |4489-4| ] 3022-8 |4233°0| 15) 5) Fe,
299 2566°3 |4480°! 101 | 3040-0 /4226°3; 3/ 3) Oa, Sr,
port 82t| £ 2581-2 |4471-2|100)2 102 | 30618 |4215°3| 40| 7| Ca, Sr,
9 2585-4 |4468°5| 20] § 155°5 |4178°8 ;
295 2620°8 (4446: 6 3187-0 |4166°7 Ca,
84 | 2625-2 (4443-0) 10| : 103})h. 3363-5 |4101-2/100'5 H,
297 633-0 |4436°7 3431-0 4077-0) 2 Ca,
as 2639-6 |4433°6 3526-0 4045 3 Fe,
299 651-5* 4426 3703°3 |3990°?| 2
33 2653-2 |4425-0 2 3769°5 |3970°2| 2 Fe,
231 2664-9 |4418-°0} 2/1 H,37785 |3967-9| 75| 3} Fe, Ca,
a3 2665-9 |4417°5| 3) 1 H,.3882'5 |3932-8] 50 Fe, Ca,
85 2670-0 |4414°7 1
tion assigned to this line, firs by Respighi (a avg loathe
T was aenrand when the Preliminary Catalogue 3 was published), rests upon
Series of urements, referring it to four neigh’
the probable error is about jth of a division of Kirch
9. No, 6 in A ion there given, 743?
16 and 17. Nos. 8 and 9 of Position given as 816°8 and 827-6, by a mis-
take in identif; upon the
40. I have never myself seen this ~ reversed, however, saw
eb torre t was first ar Aa bar ae
p. 6
al, Tho ition of this line has been eon determined by three series
create tie compuclnn My result agrees exactly with
ig Huggi
of Huggins.
Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Series, Vou. IV, No. 23.—Nov., 1872.
23
362 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Limestone, etc.,
72. Erroneously given in P ue as oe. 1, which line does not reverse, or at least
was never seen reversed at She
100, The prin cipal i oa = the 8 spedird wl od the corona. The corresponding lin
spectru eeble, a te ral occasions when the neighbor
ing sine - icp, n (1463, & ke.) ag: een greatly disturbed, this has wholly failed to
sympa nce I have marked the Fe with a?. Watts indicates a strong line
of ony Lat sa 315
aoe Observed only on aed day, but verified by Prof. Emerson.
172. “Called ‘little a by Mr. Sto
119. Given by Lockyer as K 2054. Its position is a little uncertain; it seems
to coincide with a of the dark lines at 2051 and 2054, but Ties between them,
a little nearer
ther a ia than a line
222, The position of this “ine, which, however, like 189, is rather a band, w
determined by two series of ¢: metrical measurements. It was di wie
ered by Rayel in J anuary, 1869; ‘se “called ' f’ by car ge
272 and 273. These lines were both reversed (by a w bright stripe running
down the Koma! of the broad hazy band) as constantly, whenavel the seeing ba:
or © = If The observation was cult, however, and required the
ost soialie exclusion of foreign light, and a careful adjustment of the slit in
the plane of the hia image formed by these parti rays.
d to be regularly Savéreed ice the non ze the sun itself,
‘in the penumbra and immediate neighborhood of every important spot
Arr. XLIL—On the Quartzite, Limestone and associated rocks of
the vicinity of Great Barrington, Berkshire Co., Mass. ; by
James D, Dana. With a map, on Plate IV.
WHATEVER the a ces at Canaan,* the quartzite in
Great Barrington (or Barrington, as it is called in the guide-
books), a dozen miles north of Canaan, alternates with es
schist, and both of these rocks for the most part overlie the * Stock-
schist, to a great extent a newer rock; and as both occur A
‘some places interstratified with upper — of the limestone,
are parts of one consecutive series of stra like
If then the western range of eae in Berkshire is, ae
that of West Rutland, Chazyt in age, the range to the eastw
* See, on the “ Canaan Quartzi ve hemes: tier Ii, oh 179. Ishall at a ee
‘time reconsider the conclusion in that paper with regard to the relations post od
autite to the other rocks; it was based on general connicieraiien and 0)
This rela poogerages gneiss and quartzite was observed by Prof. Hitchcock,
sy is stated in his Massachusetts Geological p. 588-590, 1841), wot
he says that the quartzite might be considered a member of the gneiss and m
formation. Its relation i i of, on
“an ph nem = Pninge
rane
tn the vicinity of Great Barrington, Mass. 363
is probably Trenton; and, farther, the quartzite and the associ-
ated mica schist (and gneiss), since they directly overlie the
limestone, and besides are sometimes interstratified with it, are,
with little doubt, either of the Trenton, or of the Cincinnati
(Hudson River) group. Prof. Hitchcock makes the statement
that the limestone of the western range is essentially pure car-
bonate of lime, or contains very little magnesia if any, while the
more eastern, both in Massachusetts and Vermont, is mostly
dolomite. *
the Quebec group; but differ in referring the other rocks
{on the basis of facts since ascertained) to the Trenton and
* How far this difference is connected with reget geological age has not
to
Adams and Williamstown,
ie degen to Hitchcock 4
@ eastern, contain little or no m sia.
+ Amer. Phil. Soc., Jan. 1, 1841, This Journ., xlvii, 151, 1844. The Messrs.
made the limestone Trenton, or ere: cheering ter taarniee tc: A
: Potsdam, and the Taconic slates, with those west of them to the H
Son River, Hudson River slates.
364 J. D. Dana on the Quartzte, Limestone, etc.,
sion of Logan, that the great disturbances affecting these Lower
Silurian rocks occurred at the close of the Lower Silurian.
I propose to discuss the facts as to the special age of these
rocks on another occasion.
I have said that the conformable superposition of the lime-
stone, schists, and quartzite is unquestionable—contrary to the
ain rocks. The evidence consists in the direct testimony of
sections showing unmistakable superposition.
In my discussion of the subject, I first briefly explain
the topography of the region, in order that the positions and
peoemrnicn, relations of the several localities described may
appreciated. The accompanying map (Plate IV) in its out-
lines is a reduction of the Berkshire County map of 1858; the
topography I have added from such observations as I have
been able to make without the use of instruments. I next
describe the kinds of rocks in order that their variety and
their transitions may be understood, and also the bearing of
the facts on the value of lithological characters as a criterion
geological chronology. Finally, I shall present the facts con-
nected with the stratification of the rocks, as obtained from see-
tions in different parts of the region.
1. Topography.
In the vicinity of Great Barrington (see the map) there are
three principal north-and-south valleys over a region about ten
miles wide, each containing strata of crystalline lhmestone.
(1.) The western, that of I ont (and western part of Great
a is backed, as just stated, by the Taconic mountams.
(2.) The central is that of the Housatonic river, on which are
situated the villages of Great Barrington; Van Deusenville,
two miles north of Great Barrington; Housatonic, two miles
farther north; and Stockbridge, three miles northeast of
Housatonic, or six from Great Barrington.
(3.) The eastern, the valley of Muddy Brook and the Kon-
ats lies along the eastern border of the town of Barrington,
and has Beartown Mountain on the eas
The two ranges of ridges between these three valleys ae
sist mainly of the metamorphic schists and quartzite whic
overlie, or are interstratified with, the limestone. :
e range bounding the Housatonic valley on the west 38, by
estimate, 100 to 250 feet in height above the river. ae
Van Deusenville it consists of two overlapping parts, Land W,
and betw ows Williams river.
The range on the east of this valley varies from 100
least 500 feet in elevation above the Housatonic. To the
northward it bends more to the westward toward the Hous
in the vicinity of Great Barrington, Mass. 365
and western section. “Tom Ball,” the highest summit of the
range, lies directly west of Williamsville, and is by estimate
750 feet in elevation above the plain either side. Its rocks are
mica or hydro-mica slate and chloritic mica slate, like those of
the Taconic range. Again, the town of Alford is divided lon-
gitudinally from north to south by a low ridge of the same
slates, 50 to 250 or 300 feet in elevation. 7
may also state, as it will be necessary to make use of the
fact in the course of this memoir, that a range, similar in rocks
and altitude to the Tom Ball ridge, lies farther east along the
eastern boundary of the town of West Stockbridge, and extends
northward between Richmond and Lenox to the southern bor-
der of Pittsfield. “Lenox Mountain ” is its highest part, and
May well give a name to the ridge. All the ridges here men-
tioned have an approximate parallelism to the Taconic range
farther west
The limestone region extends to the eastward of Beartown
Mountain. I propose to continue my investigations of the
Taconic and later rocks in that direction another season. How
they spread east, whether anywhere to the Connecticut river
valley or not, is yet among the unknown things in American
geology. :
2. Kinds of Rocks.
The following rocks occur in the limestone region within 20
miles north or south of Great Barrington. The beds of schist
and slate either directly underlie, or are interstratified with, or
Overlie the limestone; the quartzite rocks all overlie the lower
F haeciirg stratum, but are sometimes interstratified with others
ve.
366 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Limestone, ete.,
so-called Canaanite ; it also occurs in the next town, Sheffield,
but is sparingly met with in the limestone farther north.
Brown mica in scales is also common in the less pure layers of
the Canaan limestone.
B. Metamorphie schistose rocks and slates.—The following are
among the occurring kinds of schistose and slaty rocks.
(1) Mica schist, abounding in mica, the scales largish, their
colors white and black intermingled, the latter predominating.
(2) Arenaceous mica schist, with minute scales of mica.
(3) Mica slate, using this term in a sense distinct from that of
mica schist, for a shining slaty rock, smooth in surface, inter-
mediate between mica schist and clay slate, and also between
* Trepeat here that the hydro-miea slate was formerly called talcose slate, and
. by Emmons 7 b i i
(Vt. G. Rep., p. 708) to contain no magnesia.
The following are analyses; 1 by Hunt; 2 to 4 by Barker:
Si 6 COs Mg (Ce 6Ne. K | vol.
1. Ste Marie, Canada, red, 66°70 16°20 6-90 2°65 0°67 [3°78] 3°10=100
, 1810 12-80 1:23 5°57 089 0-60= —
: > y 90 20°00 f 03
4. Pownal, Vt, bh-gray, 42:90 42:20 1:98 0-78 1-33 5-24 5°60==1000
These analyses indicate that it is often impossible to distinguish the hydro-mic®
paged guish the 2y'
slates; for No, 2, although described in the Vermont Report as “the most unc
an the vicinity of Great Barrington, Mass. 367
_ }) Chioritic varieties of the mica or hydro-mica slate occur
in Tom Ball and the Taconic Mountains, in some of which
there is as much chlorite as mica. They sometimes contain
(11) Tremotite rock. The Canaanite of Canaan, a coarsel
granular rock, white to grayish-white in color, often mixed wit
quartz and with limestone, and often containing scales of
brown mica. Weathered specimens sometimes show the ends
of crystals of tremolite. :
_ (12) Clay-slate occurs alternating with quartzite and limestone
im Williamstown, Massachusetts, and at Rutland and elsewhere
im Vermont. That of the Taconic range west of Great Barring-
ton lies mostly to the west of the mica or hydro-mieca slate of
that range. } : {
“aaa :
appears to be almost solely the hydrous mica damourite; just such a rock has been
recently described from ‘Galm-Chateaa, and called damouritic schist. Another
analysis by Barker, not here cited, is of a chloritic variety.
ee 4
868 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Iimestone, ete.,
C. Quartzite beds.—The rocks of the quartzite beds differ
much in character. The principal kinds are the following. —
(1.) An intensely hard, gray or whitish quartzite, jointed
profoundly and in more than one direction, but without distinct
traces of bedding. me beds are a conglomerate of the same
hardness, made up of pebbles or stones from the size of a pea
to that of cobble stones. Minute particles of pyrites are spar-
ingly disseminated through a large part of this and other
varieties of the quartzite. _
(2.) A rock equally massive in fracture and almost as firm,
but showing the bedding more or less distinctly. (It is often
used for the hearths of furnaces.) Cleavable particles of a
glassy feldspar are sometimes distributed through it. When
thus laminated it often contains, especially over the surfaces of
the lamine, scales of a white mica or hydro-mica, and sometimes
minute brown or blackish tourmalines.
A rock of this kind often weathers rapidly on exposure, SO
as to become very friable, or even fall to sand. (It is used for
making glass in the region.)
: (3.) Soft sand-beds, in thin layers, that change deeply to 4
irty sand. ‘
(i) Caleareous quartzite, which graduates on one side wees
limestone and the other into quartzite. Some hard laminat
quartzites are very porous as if they had once contained calea-
reous material. :
(5.) Gneissic quartzite and quartz-conglomerate. A variety
consisting partly of quartz pebbles half an inch to an inch m
diameter containing large masses of orthoclase and much mica
and really a variety of gneiss.
(6.) Feldspathie quartzite, a quartzite, often very hard, con
taining much orthoclase through its mass. The orthoelat
ecomposes easily and becomes removed, leaving the rec
cavernous, and thus, as Hitchcock long since explained, 18 pt
duced the buhrstone of Berkshire. Besides the orthoclase, a
glassy cleavable less alterable feldspar may often be oor
guished in the so-called buhrstone, and sometimes in the wa
of the cavities that had been made by the decomposition an
removal of the orthoclase; it is probably either albite oF
oligoclase.* sarees
The transitions between the different kinds of rock in thé
quartzite formation are often very t. Only a few
sometimes separate the regularly-bedded fragile quartzite from
the hard bedless granular quartz. The soft sand-rock pape
has within it intensely hard masses made up of the sands ©
__ *I am indebted for specimens of this and the preceding variety of the quartz
‘Brook and Mill Biver, east of New Lenox. n=? we "0m fe valeve-l
in the vicinity Great Barrington, Mass. 269
many layers solidified together ; the bedding stops short off in
ignorant of the facts would suppose were all rence
boulders, ay they are -— at least the hard knots of the
rotted sand rock.
These ‘aivenicess in the quartzite serve to explain much that
is my serious in its apparent distribution. It does not answer
the pu of strict science to set down the plains along the
valleys as all limestone areas; for the soil of these plains may
test on soft beds either of the quartzite formation, or of the
Mica schist; and we cannot infer from dn outcrop of hard
quartzite only a few yards in breadth that the concealed stra-
tum below to whith it belongs has no greater breadt
Again, following the direction of the bedding, seis are some-
times changes from quartzite to mica schist or gneiss. is is
Proved by the fact t at the’étrata-of the sme north-and-south
range, or in the direction of the strike, are mainly quartzite in
one Mg and in another, two or oe miles we! are Seid
Berke
Those 1 facts at the first thought seem strange. But we take
ed
little note heath unaltered ses rocks of the change pepe
the beddin ie unger f purely siliceous sand to a
impure con a ff an existing seashore, from the sands of
4 sand-flat to Sie: ee of the shallow hoveor but a few rods
370 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Limestone, ete.
distant; and the difference we find in the Green Mountain rocks
is only this small and often unimportant distinction made
intensely apparent by metamorphism.
If then a bed of rock may be quartzite in one part and mica
schist or gneiss in another, and if these rocks alternate with
one another in the way mentioned, there is not strictly any
quartzite formation in the Green Mountains; for the formation
is made up of various rocks, and quartzite is not always the
predominant one.
he kinds of rocks in the region under discussion have been
here separately described with some detail because the fact 1s
not generally appreciated that gneiss, granitoid gneiss, coarse
and fine mica 5G hydro-mica slate, compact garnet rock,
hornblende slate, chloritic rocks, as well as quartzite, soft an
hard, may belong to the Stockbridge limestone formation, and
even overlie it. Many of the rocks are precisely such as be
long to the so-called “ Green Mountain Series,” which series
has been pronounced on lithological evidence to be pre-Silurian
and Huronian.
I have collected specimens of chloritic mica slate from the
summits of Mt. Washington in the Taconic range; of Tom
Ball; of the Graylock ridve, near South Adams, Mass.; of Mt.
Mansfield, in the region of the Green Mountain series of rocks
in Vermont; and from the ridge two miles west of this city
directly the Canaan limestone: Is the rock therefore of the
White Mountain series and pre-Silurian? I have seen @ slate
abounding in’ staurolites alternating with hornblende rock,
gneiss and quartzite, in Vernon, in southeastern Vermont, but &
few miles north of the Bernardston region of either Lower Helder f
berg or Devonian quartzite, slate and limestone (crinoids an ne
in diameter of stem occurring in the beds), and, as the Vermon
Report states, the quartzites of these adjoining towns are proba-
bly the same rock: Are these beds of the White Mountain series
and pre-Silurian ?
‘e learn from the facts how much virtue there is in lithology
for determining the equivalency of metamorphic rocks. ~
may afford a quick answer to hard questions, but its answer '°
worth very little unless otherwise abundantly fortified.
: [To be continued.]
0. N. Rood—Nature, etc., of the Discharge of a Leyden Jar. 871
Art. XLIII.—On the nature and duration of the discharge of a
Leyden Jar connected with an induction coil; by OapEN N,
Roop, Prof. of Physics in Columbia College. Part IIT.
(Concluded.)
Form and duration of the discharge of the small jar with brass
alls as electrodes.
The form of the discharge under these circumstances was
more complex ; the succession of acts being generally as fol-
lows: first, an instantaneous spark, which was followed by a
pale violet discharge, lasting a small fraction of a second ;
afterward came a series of instantane-
ous sparks whose number diminished
as the striking distance became great-
e; the average of the experiments
Sarai Oo apne ‘0247 sec.
nla PEC Ce panes > pees 0276 “
Final ws ea SSI a. OS 0261 “
The portion AB, figs. 5 and 6, consisted of from ten to
"twenty instantaneous pace: its duration varying with the
Di
number of included discharges. Dise observations gave for
Maximum duration of AB,............... ‘0119 see.
Medium “ RE tae at sc. Clue *
Minimum MN cceeetrs sere 0058 *
jj ome: .—A quite differant form was some ee a Deen
ike that in fig. 7, and consisting of a faint violet streak termin-
at each end by: an instantaneous spark, the Sg aa being,
026 sec, to 030 sec
372 O. N. Rood—Nature and Duration of
t. These, from their rarity, were a
little difficult to study, and I am not —
sure that in all cases the act” was
terminated by a spark. The violet
streak was of course invisible in dise
experiments.
Striking distance 2 millimeters—The form was the same as
fig. 5, but the dimensions were somewhat reduced.
Total duration with WAP "seins ss 01830 sec.
dis 01588 “
AVOTORG,. fs einiin d+ cw cds
Average duration of are Pe ee
The other alge (fig. 7) also sometimes occurred with a dura-
tion of ‘027 s
P wapieerd pen 3 millimeters.—The form was still the same;
ro ag ion AB consisting pean’ of only three or four
ee but often of eight or
Total duration with A i. eee 0124
* dise
The form of fig. 7 sometimes occurred, tipo with a
duration about twice as great as that just give
Striking distance 4 millimeters.—The form was sometimes ope
same as those just ota but more often consisted solely °
a compact series of from four to six seapesuincnr rt sparks.
‘0
Duration with — sparks, oe re 3 sec. disc.
uk Oya pees 0082 “
Striking a: 5 millimeters.—Merely two, three oF four
isolated sparks.
Average total duration, ...-..37.:. <3 0085 sec. (disc).
Striking distance 6 pees —Same form as es last,
Average total duration,..............++ 0025 sec. (dise).
Striking distance 7 hence —T wo, three, may four jiaig
Average total duration,.......5..60..0% ‘0018 disc).
Striking distance 8°75 millimeters.—Only two wales one quite
faint. Interval between them 0009 sec. (disc).
Striking distance 10 millimeters.—One spark; seldom two-
10-75 was the maximum striking distance; at it, and half @
millimeter under it, only a single spark was produe
Form and duration of the discharge of the small jar with platr-
num points as electrodes.
The length of the simple induction spark was 58 millimeters.
the Discharge of a Leyden Jar. 373
Striking distance 1 millimeter.—The form varied considerably,
three or four different kinds being mingled. e simplest
. form consisted of ten or twelve instantaneous sparks following
each other at a pretty regular interval, which increased some-
what toward the close of the act. This kind of discharge pro-
duced a short hissing sound like that obtained by thrusting a
red hot wire in cold water, and its presence could be detected
by the ear alone. The total duration of this form was subject
to considerable variation; below I gi
The greatest, 0099 sec.
M ‘0037
tc
“ medium, 0068 “
The last quantity was not obtained as the mean of the other
two, but is the average of eleven distinct experiments with the
disc and mirror. These I give as a sample of the variation in
the results sometimes obtained in these experiments, the discord-
ance being mainly due, not to the methods, but to the pheno-
menon itself.
sec,
0047 mirror and compass.
“0099 “ “ “
006 4 © &e “
70047 “ “ mercury tube.
6c “ce “
Average 0068
If we take the average number of sparks as ten, we shall
lave for the average interval separating them ‘0007 sec., that
8, these sparks were generated at the rate of 1428 per second.
Suppose that a combination of ten or fifteen of them would
be sufficient to render the ear sensible of the tone produced ;
but Owing to the irregularity of their position, instead of fur-
Nishing an approximation to a musical tone, the sound resem-
bled rather that of the combination of the consonants, sr.
hap drawing a card or piece of thin sheet brass over the
e of an irregularly notched plate of brass, this sound could
be imitated.
. Other forms.—Quite often the discharge was like that given
m fig. 7, with a total duration of ‘017 sec. More rarely the
form in fig. 5 was produced, but I could obtain no good
_ Me€asurement of it. In one case its average duration was
doubtfully estimated to be sec.
374 O. N. Rood—Nature and Duration of
Striking distance 2 millimeters.—Form was generally like fig.
4, merely ten or twelve instantaneous sparks; total duration
‘0075 sec. Sometimes forms like fig. 7 were seen.
Striking distance 3 millimeters.—Like the last, with perhaps
twenty sparks; total duration 0088 sec. Forms like fig. 7 were
sometimes seen.
Striking distance 4 millimeters,—Fifteen or twenty sparks;
total duration ‘0081 sec.
Striking distance 5 millimeters. —Form same as the last; num-
ber smaller ; total duration ‘0078 sec.
“Striking distance 7 millimeters —Same form; total duration
0067 sec.
Striking distance 9 millimeters,—Form the same; total dura-
tion ‘0060 sec.
Striking distance 10 millimeters.—Same form; total duration
-0046 sec.
Striking distance. 12 millimeters.—Same form still; only four
or five sparks ; total duration ‘0041 sec.
Striking distance 15 millimeters.—Like the last, consisting of
two or three sparks, total duration 0020 sec.
The maximum striking distance was 24°5 millimeters, when
the discharge consisted of only a simple instantaneous spa!
an
It will be noticed that the total duration of the discharge 1
these experiments was not, as formerly, a maximum a
a
een known that the simple induction discharge consists of an
instantaneous spark which is followed by a violet light, the
latter lasting during a rather large fraction of a second. This
is called the aureol, and has been studied by several physicists
the Discharge of a Leyden Jar. 375
As their results, nevertheless, would have no particular applica-
tion to the matter in hand, I made a new set of experiments
with the same apparatus, using also the ‘same electrodes and
battery.
Duration of the aureol with brass balls as electrodes.
Striking distance. Duration.
1 millimeter. "026 sec.
2 “ce ‘Ol 5 “ce
3 sc “0 l 2 oo
4 “ “009 it
5 “ ‘006 is
Ata striking distance of ten millimeters the aureol was not
visible. The light of the aureol corresponding to one of the
electrodes was violet, that due to the other had a hue approach-
Ing red. ith small striking distances the two streaks were
i contact, but separated as the distance between the electrodes
was increased.
Duration of the aureol with platinum points as electrodes, the
length of the simple induction spark being 48°7 millimeters.
Striking distance. Duration.
1 millimeter. ‘022 sec.
2 “ “020 ce :
3 cc 0 ] 8 é
10 oe alee ae ee
With ten millimeters only one of the streaks was visible; as
before, they were red and violet.
In both of these experiments the duration of the aureol
a8 great an interval as 026 sec., which is the maximum dura-
tion of the multiple discharges described in this paper.
-he general result obtained in these experiments may then
be summed up as follows: if a Leyden jar, of a selected size,
it is evident that we may regard two
vening layer of air a millimeter thick, as a minute Leyden jar,
Tepresenting the last of the series.
376 O. N. Rood—Nature, etc., of the Discharge of a Leyden Jar.
The combination of the aureol or violet discharge with the
multiple sparks, is, I think, to be explained thus: the first
spark heats and rarefies the air between the electrodes; if then
the electric current is furnished with sufficient rapidity by the
coil, the tension of the electricity in the jar may rise sufficiently
for a discharge through the rarified air before it can cool down,
and thus produce the violet light. This state of things would
continue till the electricity began to be furnished more slowly
by the coil, when it would result that, the air between the elec-
trodes having time to cool down would no longer permit the
electricity to pass through it in an unbroken stream, but wou
ompel it to discharge itself in sparks. According to this idea
the successive sparks ought to be separated by a gradually
increasing interval, and this indeed appears to be the case, the rise
of the separating interval being particularly strongly marked
toward the close of the total act. Brass balls favor this mixed
form of discharge, perhaps, by confining the air to a certain
extent, and thus preventing it from cooling down. Platinum
points can have no such influence, and with them this pheno-
menon is rare. With the larger jar it never occurred, as the air
was always able to cool down before the electric tension had
sufficient time to rise in its larger surface, so as to warrant a
discharge. With the small jar and longer striking distances,
the violet light was not produced for an analogous reason, and
also perhaps because the air was less confined.
described in the second part of this paper, this violet light He
lass, and the use of a lens of vastly larger angular aperture.
he large number of sparks (15 or 20), given by the small
ter
to dispense with arrangements for controling the moment 4
to
olv-
ant
I will also call the attention to the circumstance that yer
Le : . :
S. P. Langley—Allegheny System of Time Signals. 877
in experiments on binocular vision, etc., the results are not to
be relied on as having been obtained with an instantaneous
illumination, as is abundantly shown by the large total dura-
fons so often met with in this investigation.
Finally, by the use of large rotating discs, these multiple
discharges can readily be exhibited to moderate sized audiences.
New York, June 29th, 1872.
Art. XLIV.—On the Allegheny System of Electric Time Sig-
nals; by Prof. S. P. LANGLEY.
THE necessity of a uniform standard of time for the railways
of the United States is one which is growing into importance
with the increasing extent of our railway system; and we are,
ere long, in this country, to be called on to settle for ourselves
4 practical problem which has already been solved in England,
and which is beginning to make its demand for solution upon
the managers of our railroads.
Since past experience shows that their probable adoption of
4 new and common standard will introduce it to public notice
and discussion, and then to adoption by cities and individuals,
it is desirable that this should not be done without the
direction which intelligent scientific coGperation will give to a
movement originated by the demands of intercontinental
c. As few are aware how generally this codperation has
y been invoked, nor to what extent the public is indebted
to observatories for increased security of transit, it has seem
tan account of what has been done in this direction in any
ne of them would be of interest.
The earliest introduction of the system of electric automatic
smission of time-signals, on an extended scale, appears to
be due to the observatory of Greenwich.
‘he Astronomer Royal, with Mr. C. V. Walker, commenced
their use in 1852, carrying for that purpose special wires on the
les of the South Eastern Railway from Greenwich to London
Bridge. The subsequent extension of the use of Greenwich
time under this system has been almost universal throughout
the United Kingdom, the observatories of Glasgow and
Liverpool, under the direction respectively of Professor Grant
and Mr, Hartnup, as well as that of Edinburgh, having taken
Part in bringing it to its present condition of utility. For an
instructive and very full description of the methods employed
at Greenwich, reference may be made to an article m_ the
perological Journal for April, 1865, by W. Ellis, Esq.,
PRA , to whom, as to all the gentlemen named, the writer
Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serres, Vou. IV, No. 23.—Nov., 1872.
24 ‘
378 = S& P. Langley—Allegheny System of Time Signals.
arrangement in a form adapted to the needs of American
railways, and the supervision of their application to the wants
of cities and individuals.
In doing this, a great number of ingenious devices have been
examined, and if the system to be described appears to be one
of the simplest, it has yet been reached only after much care
in setting aside all which would not bear the test of practical
the Pennsylvania Central Railroad with its official standa of
ime ; it the time is now sent daily to Philadelphia 0”
the east, as far as Lake Erie on the north, and to Chicago on t
west, regulating the clocks on a number of minor roads eo
whose wires it goes, as well as on those of the principal soutl-
ern lines connecting the Atlantic with the Mississipp!. Thus
passing, as it does, over several thousand miles daily, 1 *
elieved to be at present one of the most extended systems 0
‘time distribution in the world. :
The observatory is on the summit of the ascent on the north-
ern side of the valley of the Ohio, about two miles in a
S. P. Langley—Allegheny System of Time Signals. 379
double wire or “loop,” communicating with the city, is em-
ployed occasionally for the observatory’s own messages, and
when (as, for instance, in longitude determinations) it is wished
to send sidereal time, without interrupting the regular trans-
mission of signals from the mean-time clock. In the transit
toom, in the western wing of the observatory, are kept the
sidereal clock by Frodsham, of London, and the principal mean-
tme clock by Howard, of Boston.
On the escape-wheel arbor of this, the standard mean-time
clock, and turning with it, once a minute, is a wheel cut with
Sixty sharp radial teeth, of which those corresponding to the
50th, 51st, 52d, 58d, 54th and 59th seconds of the minute have
y the minutest lifting of one from the other, and this is
effected automatically by means of a ruby attached to one of
them, and placed within reach of the wheel above mentioned.
As each of these teeth passes, the ruby, and with it the spring,
is lifted through a minute distance. (Not in practice more than
One one-hundredth of an inch, and- usually much less.) Once a
Second, therefore, the circuit is opened during a period of prob-
ably less than a twentieth ‘of a second, and as the wheel ad-
vances a tooth with each vibration of the pendulum, the
armature of the repeater is raised each second of the minute,
until the 49th is complet
This action is repeated in every minute of the twenty-four
hours without variation. The particular second is thus iden-
tified, but one minute is (so far as the action of the standard
clock is concerned) not distinguished from another. To do
880 S& P. Langley—Allegheny System of Time Sigdals,
consists less in this, however, than in a device by means 0
which it can be caused to gain or lose any fractional part of 4
change is being effected. This chronometer is to replace the
nection with the local circuits of the observatory ; one ba
bang employed for the sidereal clock and chronograph, aly
another for the mean-time standard. Any interruption of the
when the circuit is opened. The accessory apparatus, suc ie
batteries, relays, switch-boards and so forth, which are use
in every telegraph office, it will be superfluous to describe here
1ethod which has been adopted as likely to ensure ™
accuracy in the time keepers which control it. :
S. P. Langley—Allegheny System of Time Signals. 381
The transit instrument in the western wing, is of four inches
aperture, and with it and the chronograph, observations for
time are made on every fair night of the year, except on
vations of each night, after the other corrections are applied,
and the results determined from the chronograph and the side-
real clock. The mean error in the resulting determination of
é sidereal clock correction, is from three to four hundredths of
a second, but it cannot be assumed that that of the mean time
standard is known within these limits, except at the time that
the observations are freshly made.
t may be desirable to point out where the system pursued
here differs from that in which a few signals are sent at stated
hours, as at Greenwich. In the case of the time ball for
instance, dropped daily by a clock at Greenwich mean noon,
it 18 customary to compare the mean time clock which drops it,
with the sidereal time a few minutes before twelve. If it (the
Operating clock), be slow, it is caused to gain, and if fast,
caused to lose, an amount needed to bring it to coincidence
yy noting coincidence of beats by ear. The resulting errors of
. }
.
3882 S& P. Langley—Allegheny System of Time Signals.
(AT, dt, being the usual symbols for the respective corrections
of error and rate) : :
9 LHerculis,
Aug. 10, 1872. Time-stars | si ital A. E. F., observer.
(0 Herculis,
At mean 9b AT. ot.
Sidereal clock, + 79°32 +1518
Break-cireuit chronr. +2™°22°18 -+3°*30
Chron, 3242, + 50°05 +311
Mean time standard — 00°27 -+0°46
The mean time clock is here 0°27 fast by actual observation,
but when the next comparison is made the following morning
(at 21 hours), its error can usually be obtained only by compar
ison with another clock. If it be compared with each of the
other clocks in turn, each, owing to the variations of its rate
during the night, will probably give a slightly different result,
but supposing all the time-keepers equally reliable, the prob-
able error will be less, in taking the mean of the four, than by
any. single one. (
he above corrections for error and rate having been applied
to the sidereal clock ; a comparison is taken with it in the morn-
ing, and the resulting time of the mean-time clock noted, on
the assumption that the sidereal clock is an exact standard.
The same comparison is made with each, after the respective
corrections and rates have been applied, each being succes:
sively treated as an independent standa
The results will then be entered in this form.
1872. August, 104 21". .
Error of mean time standard, — 0°19 (by sidereal clock.)
“ 6 % “ — 0°05 “ break-circuit chron.
- : n - + 0°11 “ chron’r 3242.
“é “ i74 < ‘14 aoe 0°04 “6 its own rate.
The mean or “adopted” error of the mean time standard is then
— 0*
sate oe SRG
4 — 0°04,
In the absence of any more absolute criterion, the time of
the standard in this instance is assumed to be four one bun-
not abruptly, but gradually during the ensuing twelve hours.
It is of course impracticable to stop the clock and raise OF
lower the adjusti twice daily for such minute corrections
Basak
S. P. Langley—Allegheny System of Time Signals. 888
ete. Weights representing three or four seconds are kept on
the top of the bob, so that their removal will retard the clock
if desired to that amount.
A record is kept in which the comparisons in the tabular
form above given are entered twice daily, the amount of the
Th meter and clock-case thermometer are also read
twice daily for the purpose of laying down curves representing
the separate effects of temperature and pressure. Another curve,
whose ordinates represent the algebraic sum of the correspond-
ing ordinates of the first two, shows the combined results of both,
or comparison with still another representing the clock rates.
These are chiefly useful in the occasionally long intervals of
cloudy weather which occur iu winter. At such times the
clock rates are obtained by interpolation from the curves, and
“weighted” according to the degree of dependence to be placed
on each clock, before making up the final or “ adopted error” of
the standard. When observations are obtained daily, however,
Such precaution is needless. é
Those who are aware of the number of patented devices for
controling distant clocks by electricity, may perhaps feel sur-
prise that so little mention has here been made of their use.
Some of these are of extreme ingenuity and much promise,
384. SS P. Langley—Allegheny System of Time Signals.
even this is not quite reliable where the circuit is a long
one. The clocks described have subsidiary apparatus en:
abling them to send controling currents on the Jones’ plan,
but thus far its use has been confined to the observatory.
The whole work, external to the observatory, has therefore
been hitherto done by the sending of signals, through which
distant clocks may be regulated, but without employing means
for their contro/, and though this is done over a very extende
field, a brief description of it, under the three divisions to
which it naturally falls, will suffice.
1st. The supply of time to watchmakers and jewellers. ee
_ “jewelers wire” passes through the Western Union Telegrap
almost if not quite all of the clocks and watches of the city are
thus at sitendhand regulated. There is, in this uniform an
many lost minutes in the day to eac rson in a city, a
their aggregate represents a large draft upon the time of the
business public, disappear. ae
Applications have been received from watchmakers 1n poe y
boring cities and at a considerable distance from Pittsburgh, !F
this telegraphic supply of the time, which it has not always
en possible to accommodate, but which have been welcome
as showing a public appreciation of the utility of the work.
2d. The supply of time to railroads. The watchmakers and
jewelers are in telegraphic connection with the
1ent *
observatory by a wire which is devoted to their use, but dis -
SP. Langley—Allegheny System of Time Signals. 385
tant cities, such as Chicago or Philadelphia, can be reached
only by the wires of the telegraph or railroad companies, which
are too valuable to be exclusively employed for this purpose.
The method used on the Pennsylvania Central, and Pittsburgh,
Fort Wayne and Chicago roads, will sufficiently illustrate the
System as applied to railways.
A special wire connects the observatory with the office in
which the wires owned by these roads unite. In this office is
asmall bell which is struck lightly every second, in the manner
escribed, and except for the pauses to designate the minute
and hour, continues to sound unintermittingly ; affording to the
conductors and other employees specially concerned in the time
ameans of ready comparison, even without entering the building.
At 9 and at 4, Altoona time (ten minutes fast of Pittsburgh),
the Pittsburgh operator in charge connects the main eastern wire
to Philadelphia, 354 miles distant, with the observatory, and for
the ensuing five minutes the beats of the Howard mean-time
standard are automatically repeated on similar bells, or on the
customary ‘“sounders” in Philadelphia and in every tele-
graph office through which the road wire passes; all station
clocks and conductor's watches being compared with it as the
Official standard. After five minutes the clock is “switched”
by the Pittsburgh operator out of the main line wire, which is
returned to its ordinary use.
A similar set of signals, lasting for five minutes, is sent at 9
and 4 of Columbus time (18 minutes slow of Pittsburgh) to all
Stations as far west as Chicago inclusive, in the main western
line (of 468 miles in length). At Philadelphia the time is
6
for using a single unit of time, as, though the names of “ Phila-
delphia time,” “ Altoona” or “Col i
n
train, is regulated from a single standard, that of the clock in
the observatory.
The advantages of this uniform and wide distribution of ex-
act time in facilitating the transportation of the country, and in
enhancing the safety of life and of merchandize in transit be-
tween the Western and the Atlantic cities seem to be suffi-
Clently evident. The fact that the system, described in this
»
; ? . .
article, has obtained the extension it has, within three years
386 SS P. Langley—Allegheny System of Time Signals.
from its commencement will, it may be hoped, justify the belief
that its use has proved not only valuable to railways, but an
added security to the safety of the public.
3d. Supply of time to cities. At present, arrangements
are in progress for regulating the principal public clock of
Pittsburg, (the turret clock of the City Hall, about two miles
om the observatory), which it is intended shall strike every
third hour on the bells of the fire alarm, and probably also in
the various police stations. As the mechanism for doing this
is still in course of construction, and may yet be modified im
trial, it would be premature to speak of it, especially as its suc-
cess has not yet been proven in practice here. The city clock
will automatically report its own time to the observatory by a
special wire, and it is probable that in controling its rate from
the observatory, the “Jones” system will be used.
The necessity of a uniform standard of time over the whole
country, which was alluded to in the outset as one of growing
importance, has not been further directly touched upon in this
article, which is yet as a whole devoted to describing the means
of meeting it. The evident tendency, in thus sending the tme
from one standard over so large an extent of territory, to
diminish the number of local times, and so prepare the way for
a future system, in which, at least between the Atlantic and the
Mississippi, they shall disappear altogether.
step in this direction has been contemplated by the a
gers of the roads uniting New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburg
and Chicago, who have intended to use the time of the ge
ian of Pittsburg between the two extreme points mentiones;
running all trains from New York to Chicago by this ae
alone, in place of using successively the local times of Philadel-
hia, Altoona and Columbus, as at present. Such a change
would have already taken place during the last summer, eX°¢ '
for an unexpected cause of
effected. ;
The labors of this and of other American Observatories at
tending to the same important end, that of the ultimate adop-
tion of some single time for all the country east of the Missis-
sippi, by which not only the railroads, but cities and the publie
generally, will regulate themselyes. What point shall be chose?
is of less importance than that some one shall be used and Un — ,
versally. :
The subject is one which has hitherto attracted little public
attention, but it does not seem unsafe to make the assertloPs
that the causes which have almost insensibly effected such ®
-siclbseag in England, will in a few years more bring it about
re.
Allegheny Observatory, Allegheny, Penn., Sept, 22, 1872.
A. M. Mayer—Method of Detecting the Phases, etc. 387
Art. XLV.—On a method of detecting the phases of vibration in
) the air surrounding a sounding body; and thereby measuring
| directly in the vibrating air the length of its waves and exploring
| the form of its wave-surjace ; by ALFRED M. Mayer, Ph.D.,
Member of the National Academy of Sciences. Professor of
Physics in the Stevens Institute of Technology.
THE curve A, B*, B4 ete., is the well known symbolic repre-
sentation of the dynamic condition of the air, at a given instant,
when traversed by simple sonorous vibratiohs. Those portions
of the curve above the axis OX represent the length and manner
A BI B? B3 Bi B BE
of the aerial condensations, while those flexures below the axis
represent the rarefactions; therefore similar points of the flex-
ures above the axis, or sim ints in the flexures below the
axis, represent like phases of vibratory motion. Imagine these
Conditions of the air produced by a vibrating at A; then
tances from A, equal to any number of whole wave-lengths the
B will, at the same moment of time, swing with A, but
A; while at intermediate positions, on the line OX, the
oscillations of B will be lagging somewhat behind or be slightly
mm advance of the phase of A’s vibration.
After this it is evident that if, by any means, we can see af.
the same time the vibrations of A 8g of B, we will (if the
received conception of the nature of a vibration’s propagation
1S Correct) see their motions just as has been described above,
and will therefore be able to measure, directly in the air, a wave-
h and to determine any wave surface enclosing a vibrating
y- I have devised several processes. I will, however, here
388 A. M. Mayer—Method of Detecting the Phases of
describe only two; the first, though impracticable, I speak of
to render clear the general method of all; the second I give on
account of its simplicity, ease of execution, and the superior
accuracy of its numerical results. :
Take two tuning forks giving the same note and having
mirrors attached to their similar prongs; place one at A, the
other anywhere on the line OX. Reflect a pencil of light from
each mirror of the forks to a revolving mirror, whose axis of
rotation is in a plane parallel to the planes of vibration of the
forks. If the fork B, which vibrates sympathetically, be
placed at B*, B*, BY, ete, then the two pencils reflected from
the forks will, on striking the revolving mirror, be drawn into
two sinuous curves, and the flexures of the two curves will
run parallel to each other, that is, the curves will appear as
the two rails of a sinuous railway; but, if the fork B be placed
at B', B*, or B®, ete, then the sinuosities of the two curves
will no longer be parallel but will be opposed; that is, where
a flexure of one of the curves is concave on the left, the
opposite flexure of the other curve will have its concavity
on the right. If the fork B be placed at intermediate positions,
in reference to those above stated, we will have neither concore
ance nor opposition of the flexures, but intermediate eth
depending on the fraction of half wave-lengths at which the
sympathetic fork is placed on the line OX. F
t is now readily seen that if we should place the fork B .
two successive points, as B? and B‘, on the line OX, so tha
exact concordance of flexures of the curves should be seen .
each of these points, then evidently we have placed the fork .
two positions removed from each other by a wave-length, for at
these points the air had at the same instant the same phase ©
vibration. Thus we have measured a wave-length. pier
more, if by any means we could move the fork B around
so that during this motion it always preserved, in reference 10
A, the same relation of vibratory phase, we would have deter-
mined the form of the wave-surface produced by the propas®
tion of A’s vibrations.
The above is an exposition of the thoughts that have ste
ied my mind for several months, and they ultimately led to t :
ollowing method, by which a!l I have narrated can be accom
plished without any difficulty ; thanks to the inventive pouty
of Mr. Konig, to whose skillful aid so many physicists are CO?
tinually indebted. : ‘ch
The membranes of Mr. Kénig’s manometric capsules ede
us with surfaces which vibrate in perfect accordance with the
air which touches them, and we can lead the impulses of ae
membranes through gum tubes to gas jets waded | at any desir
oint, where the vibrations of their ees
, ean be com
Thus they are far superior to the tuning forks, which
require ee
Vibrations in the Air surrounding a Sounding Body. 389
the relations of delicate adjustments to be maintained durin
each change of position, and therefore forks could only wit
culty be made to serve in the measure of a wave-length,
and could not at all be employed to trace out a wave-surface
on account of the impossibility of a continuous comparison of
their vibrations, which latter condition the manometric flames
admirably fulfill.
The Experiments.
eh quite close to and directly behind, the organ pipe
again caused the serrations of its flame neatly to bisect the
Spaces between the serrations of the organ pipe flame, and moy-
Ing around the o ipe, with the resonator held at such
distances from it that the bisections were steadily kept, I de-
Scribed in space the wave surface of the sounding pipe i
Surface I found approximately to be an ellipsoid with its foci
390 A. M. Mayer—Method of Detecting the Phases of
at the top and bottom of the pipe. Nothing could be more
satisfactory, and it was charming to behold how neatly the
the serrations. I now substituted for the resonator an organ
pipe, in every respect similar to the one on the bellows, and
with it I repeated the wave-length measures previously made
with the resonator; indeed the column of air in the pipe 12
my hand responded so perfectly to the sounding pipe that 1
thought it gave more marked results than those produced with
the resonator.
The manometric flame-micrometer.
In'the experiments described above, we examined the appear:
ances in the mirror with the unaided eye, and with it estimated
when coincidences and bisections occurred ; but td obtain results
of precision, a method was devised which determines neatly
these critical points. For that purpose I have invented the
following micrometer, founded on a beautiful suggestion of
Dr. R. Radau, who thus describes in his excellent ‘1’ Acoustque
(Paris, 1867, p. 272), a method of observing the flames of two
similar sounding organ pipes. ‘We attach to the two pipes
two of Kénig’s flames arranged so that the point of one flame
fides its base, but
which shows by reflection the base of the other flame. Th
produces the illusion of a single flame. If now we observe
this hybrid image in the revolving mirror while we sound the
two pipes, the point separates from the base, which proves that
the two flames shine alternately, and the one retracts while the
other elongates; if the two tubes act on the same flame, t
effect is null, and the flame remains immovable.” By placimg
the above “small fixed mirror” on a divided circle; or °Y
silvering its back and determining its angular displacements
around a vertical axis by the method of Poggendorff,—that 18,
by observing through a telescope, the reflections of a fixed scale
m the back of the mirror,—we have devised a simple aD
precise micrometer for ascertaining the amount of displacement
of the resonator's flame. For, having once determined, for #
given note, the amount of angular motion of the mirror requ
to move the bases of the flames over the distance between the
centers of two contiguous serrations we have the angular value
of a displacement equal to that caused by moving the reson®
tor through a wave-length, and a fraction of the turn requ I
to-produce the above movement of the bases of the flames W)
over a corresponding fraction of a wave-length. Thus cam be
measured very anal fractions of a i ek Indeed, even
with the unaided eye and without the use of the micromett?
Vibrations in the Air surrounding a Sounding Body. 391
mirror I have distinctly detected a displacement of the flames
on moving the resonator, (UT) over only 3 centimeters or 7th
of a wave-length, and with the micrometer I feel assured that
I can determine the wave-surface of a body giving the note
UT, to one centimeter of its true position. Of course with
higher notes we shall get a proportionally closer determination.
But the object of this paper is not to present numerical results ;
I reserve these for a subsequent communication, in which I will
also present diagrams of apparatus and the appearances of the
ames In various experiments.
I will here remark that the success of the experiments de-
pends on the resonator with its attached tube being in perfect
unison with the organ pipe; also, the relative heights and posi-
tions of the flames should be so adjusted that the sharpest
definitions are obtained in the rotating mirror, and thus be able
to detect and measure the effects of small changes in the position
of the resonator ; but these and other manipulative details will
readily occur to any physicist who repeats the experiments.
Applications of the Method.
lates of high theoretic interest which have heretofore been
eemed beyond the reach of experiment. Its application to
such are so numerous that they are almost co-extensive with
the phenomena of sound.
The actual experimental determination of wave-surfaces in
free air and in buildings can now certainly be accomplished ;
and such determinations may serve to extend our knowledge in
the direction of giving the proper laws which should govern
architects in their construction of rooms for public assemblies.
the differences, if any, in the velocities of sound, corre-
sponding to vibrations differing in intensities and frequencies,
May be determined by the use of reflectors, and the direct
Tom the capsules of pipe and resonator to contiguous jets, and
adjust their flames to coincidence or to bisection of serrations;
using for this purpose the manometric micrometer. Now sup-
pose, for siipheuy: that the pipe gives 340 complete vibrations
ma second; then, as the velocity of sound is 340 meters per
Second, it is evident that in ath of a second an*aerial pulse
will traverse one meter. Therefore, if all things else remain the
392s dd. C. Draper—Evolution of Structure in Seedlings.
same, and we lengthen the resonator tube $ meter, the serrated
flames of the resonator will be displaced } of the distance be-
tween the centers of two contiguous serrations ; :
be lengthened 1 meter, or one wave-length, the displacement will
amount to the entire distance separating the centers of two
contiguous serrations; and for n number of wave-lengths of
elongation of tube, we shall have n number of such displace-
ments. Thus can be measured a wave-length; and if the
number of vibrations given by the pipe be accurately known,
we can reach with the manometric micrometer an accurate
determination of the velocity of sound.
Finally, we are bold enough to believe that we have in the
highest development of the method, a means of tracking 1
the air the resultant wave-surface of combined notes; and, 2
short, of bringing the exploration of acoustic space to approach
somewhat to that precision of measurement which, for over
half a century, has characterized the study of the eethereal
vibrations producing light.
September 21st, 1872.
Art. XLVL—Growth or Evolution of Structure in Seedlings ; bY
JOHN C. Draper, M.D.
THE continuous absorption of oxygen, and formation of car-
bonic acid, is an essential condition of evolution of structure,
both in plants and in animals. : tl
The above proposition in so far as it relates to es bis
robably be admitted by all; the opposite opinion is, however,
Pp y § ’ PP p to show that
in these organisms, as in animals, growth as applied to evolu-
e discussion of the proposition in question nec
involves a preliminary review of the character of oe gases
: : i.
that they change their action according as they are examin die
in the a ee or in the dark, exhaling oxygen under the first con®”
tion, and carbonic acid under the second. Various explan®
tions of this, change of action have been given, that generally
- accepted accounting for it on the hypothesis of the absorptio®
-
J. C. Draper—Evolution of Structure in Seedlings. 898
of carbonic acid by the roots, and its exhalation by the leaves
when light is no longer present.
e change, on the contrary, appears to arise out of the fact
that two essentially different operations have been confounded,
viz: the actual growth or evolution of structures in the plant,
and the decomposition of carbonic acid by the leaves under the
influence of the light, to provide the gum or other materials
that are to be organized. These two factors are separated by
Prof. J. W. Draper in his disscusion of the conditions of growth
ia plants. We propose to show that by adopting this proposi-
on of two distinct operations in the higher plants, all the
apparent discrepancies regarding the growth of these plants are
explained.
The growth of seedlings in the dark offering conditions in
which the act of growth or evolution of structure is accom-
ott without the collateral decomposition of carbonic acid,
arranged two series of experiments in which growth under
this condition might be studied and compared with a similar
growth in the light. That the experiments might continue over
® sufficient period of time to furnish reliable comparative results,
_Iselected peas as the subject of trial, since these seeds contain
Sufficient material to support the growth of seedlings for a
couple of weeks.
or germination, viz., darkness, was secured ; the second, warmth,
rl inders
Shenae for each and keeping the level of the water the same in
th.
Since the upper part of each tube presented a similar opening
70° to 80° F., while regularity and uniformity in the ~
this the growth of the seedling was marked every twelve hours.
Am. Joun. Sc1.—Turp Sertes, Vou. IV, No. 23.—Nov., 1872. .
25
394 = J. C. Draper—Hwolution of Structure in Seedlings.
The hours selected were 7 A. M. and 7 P.M. I thus obtained
the night and day, or dark and light growth of every seedling,
as long as those in the dark grew. The seeds were planted on
June lst, and appeared above the ground on June 6th, when
the measurements were commenced. In each series one see
failed to germinate; the record consequently is for four plants
in each, and the history of the evolution of structures is as
follows :
Evolution of structure in the dark.—In Table I. the seeds are
designated as A, B, C, D, and each column shows the date on
which leaves and lateral growths appeared. These constitute
periods in the development of the plants, which are indicated by
the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The weight of each seed is given
in milligrammes.
Table L—Seedlings grown in the dark.
A. B, Cc.
Weight of seed. 43i. 436. 456. 500.
Period 1, wth day. 7th day. 7th day. 7th day.
s“ 2, 8th “ 9th “ 9th “ sth “
“ 3, 10th “ 10th “ llth “ 10th “
ee 12th “ 12th “ 13th “ 12th “
ee 14th “ 15th “ 15th “ 14th “
ech 17th “ isth “ 18th “ 17th “
, A glance at the above shows the uniformity as regards time
with which the structures were evolved in each plant. It also
indicates for each plant. an equality in the number of perl
of evolution, viz., 6, notwithstanding the difference 1m the
weights of the seeds; and suggests that the power of evolution
of structure in seedlings resides in the germ alone.
The character of the evolution in the six periods shows 4
steady improvement or progression.
In the first, the growth consists of the formation close to the
stem of two partially developed pale yellow leaves.
The second period is similar to the first, except that the
leaves are a iitte teres
The third presents a pair of small yellow leaves close to the
main stem, from between which a lateral stem or twig ree
hich @
and the tendril three times as long asin the third.
The fifth is like the fourth, except that the tendril bifurcates-
The sixth is similar to the fifth, except that the tendril trifur
eates.
_ Stem, leaves, twigs, tendrils of various degrees of complexity,
all are evolved by the force pre-existing. bs the germ without
J. C. Draper—LEvolution of Structure in Seedlings. 895
Evolution of structure in. the light.
Table IL—Seedlings grown in the light.
E, F. G.
Weight of seed. 288, 426. 462. :
Period 1, _ 6thday. — 6th day.
. 2, ith.day.. _ 7th. “ 7th day. ith “
>: 3, 8th “ 8th “ ah * 9th “
by 4, 12th: * 9th “ 10th “ 10th “
‘y 5, 15th “ lith “ 14th “ 12th “
“ rea 13th “ Dt toto <3 14th “
6,
Table II. was obtained in the same manner as Table I, the
While the general character of the evolution in both series
t. In IL the leaves
455 of seeds in the dark produced 184 of dry plant, while
455. & light "“" 41g #4
A comparison of the parts below the ground with those above
(both being dried at 212° F.) shows that the proportion of root
to total weight of plant was also nearly identical ; being,
25 of root for 100 of plant in the dark, and
os 8 100 : light.
The close similarity in the evolution of visible structure in
the light and in the dark, the small difference in the tot
Weights of the plants grown in the same time in both series,
and the close approximation in the proportional weight of root
to re all justify the conclusion, that the growth in darkness
and in light closely resemble each other, and that it is proper
to reason as regards the nature of the action from the first to
the second. “
Another interesting fact which lends support to the opinion
that the process of growth in seedlings developed in the dark
896 =—s oS. C. Draper— Evolution of Structure in Seedlings.
There remains an important argument concerning which
nothing has thus far been said. It is to be derived from the
consideration of the rate of growth in the light series during
various periods of the day of twenty-four hours. If the evolu-
tion of structure in a plant in daylight is the result of the
action of light, that evolution should occur entirely, or almost
entirely during the day. If on the contrary it is independent
of the light, it should go on at a uniform rate as in plants m
the dark.
For the elucidation of this portion of the subject, I present
the following tables; the first of which shows the growth by
night, to 7 A. M. of the seedlings in the dark series, com
pared with their growth by day, 7 4. uw. to7 P.M. The mea
surements were taken from the sixth to the twentieth of the
month, the day on which growth ceased in the dark series.
Table II.—Seedlings grown in the dark.
Night growth. Day growth.
No. 1 122 inches, 14 inches.
No. 2 133. ** 13>
No. 3 1g « 11g ¢
No. 4 128 « ne
Average, 12§ ‘© Average, 12% “
The total day growth and night. growth under these circum
stances are nearly equal, though there is a slight excess 2
favor of the night, amounting as the table shows, to % of 4?
inch in 12 inches. ;
In Table IV. the growth of the light series is given in the
same manner, by day and by night, for the same time, viz: 1
June 20th. The thermometric and hygrometric conditions 10
0th series were very similar, as indicated by the dry and wet
bulb thermometers suspended in the vicinity of each set of
J. C. Draper—Evolution of Structure in Seedlings, 897
Table [V.—Seedlings grown in the light.
Night growth. Day growth.
No. 5 34 inches. 4 inches,
No. 6 Bogs a
No. re 5 4 “ 4 4 74
No. 8 a a
Average, 64 “ Average, 6 “
Having established the continuous character of growth in
seedlings, and the similarity of rate and nature of the process
by night and by day, and admitting that at night plants throw
olf carbonic acid, it is not improbable that this carbonic acid
arises, not from mechanical absorption by the roots, and vapori-
zation by the leaves, but as a en result or concomitant of
the act or process of evolution of structure,
To put the matter in the clearest form, let us first under-
Stand what growth is. It appears in all cases to consist in the
evolution or production of cells from those already existing.
According as the cireumstances under which the cells are pro-
now we examine the evolution of cells under the simplest
conditions, as for example in the fermentation that attends the
manufacture of alcohol, we find that with the evolution of the
torule cells carbonic acid is produced. The two results are
intimately connected, and it is proper to suppose that since the
carbonic acid has arisen along with the new cells, the latter
Operation must in some way involve a process of oxidation.
Accepting the hypothesis that oxidation is attendant on these
processes of cell growth under the simplest conditions, we pass
398 = J. C. Draper—Evolution of Structure in Seedlings.
to the examination of what occurs in the lower forms of veget-
able organisms found in the air.
The Fungi, and indeed all plants that are not green, with a
few exceptions, exhale carbonic acid and never exhale oxygen.
In this case, in which cell production often occurs with such
marvelous rapidity, the carbonic acid must have arisen as a
consequent of the cell growth. It is improbable that it has
been absorbed by roots and exhaled from the structures, either
in these plants or in those produced during fermentation. In
the latter there never are any roots, and in the former, even
where roots are present, they bear a small proportion to the
whole plant. The quantity of moisture exhaled by such
growths is also insignificant, and out of proportion to the car-
bonic acid evolved. We must, therefore, in this case decline
to accept the root absorption hypothesis, and admit that the
carbonic acid has arisen as a result of the cell growth in the
plant.
that the evolution of their structures is inseparably attended
y the formation of carbonic acid, and it seems imposs!D!®
plant or animal, oxygen and evolve carbonic 4 ‘js
or some other owidized substance, as an essential condition of the
evolution of their structures.
College of the City of New York, Sept. 12th, 1872.
t
E. Billings—“Note on a Question of Priority.” 399
Art. XLVIL—Rejoinder to Prof. Hall's Reply toa “ Note on a
question of Priority” ; by EH. Bruuines.
With regard to publication, I hold it to be the duty of at
author who describes new fossils to make his work accessible
to the public. If he fail to do this, he cannot claim priority
over one who has published in the regular way. His work
may be adopted as a matter of courtesy, but not to take
precedence over fair publication. Prof. Hall’s pamphlet was
not accessible to the public at the time my paper was published,
and therefore his genus Rhynobolus cannot take priority over
my genus Obole/lina. During the discussion that has taken
Place it has been argued, with reference to publication, that
‘no determined rules or laws have been hitherto settled or
followed.” On this point, I hold that there are laws which
hot instituted by legislative enactment, and although they may
be habitually transgressed by any number of unscrupulous
persons. The law of publication is one of these. Every true
haturalist instinctively feels and knows that such a law does
ork fossils for comparison,
and for that purpose have bought them, collected them myself,
and sent others to collect them for me. But I only use them
for comparison. I never described a new species collected in
New York. On the other hand, Prof. Hall collects Canadian
fossils, and goes further. He describes the new species. He
400 Peters—Elements of two Planets.
even visited a party who, as he well knew, was collecting for
our survey, and procured a collection from him. In his reply,
he gives the reader to understand that he has refrained from
describing Canadian species “ from a natural sense of propriety.”
Where was this sense of propriety when he described the fossils
from Cayuga, Canada West, in vol. iv, Pal. N.Y.; for instance,
imputed to me.
There is, besides the above, nothing in his reply but matter
totally irrelative to the subject in dispute.
Arr. XLVIIl.—Elements of Planets (122) and (128); by Prof.
. H. F. Perers. From a letter to one of the editors, dated
Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College, Clinton, Oneida
Co., N. Y., October 15, 1872.
would be of little value. TI have, consequently, computed their
orbits, for each selecting from the series of observations three
positions suitably distributed. The elements, which, on account
of the length of the area employed, may be assumed to possess
already a great degree of reliability, result as follows:
(122) Gerda, from obs. Aug. 1, Aug. 28, and Sept. 24.
Epoch: 1872, August 28-0, Berlin mean time.
M, = 112° 59’ 34-63 == 2° 5’ 28074
m==208 12 1°76 pe = 6135218
68 == 178 56 41°89 eas eq. 18720 log a = 05081178
t= 1 36 16°85
(123) Brunhilda, from obs. Aug. 1, Aug. 27, and Sept. 25.
Epoch: 1872, August 27-0, Berlin mean time.
M, = 267° 54’ 28-70 p = 6° 30! 2332
We Tl GI 8208 pt = 8031187
8 = 308 42 13-02 {mea eq. 1872°0 log a= 074301512
(§o= 6 28 32°48
, Chemistry and Physics. 8 401
7
. *
tion and eccentricity very small, a coincidence which is
ped among the other known asteroids except in the orbit of
yt,
The orbit of Gerda is remarkable for having both the inclina-
not
n re-computing, for a check, the observations from the ele-
aay the following insignificant differences remained (cale.—
obs.) : -
(122) Litres, 2928)
Aa Ad
Aug. 1 ~—001 -0%1 Aug. 1 —0°01 —0""1
Aug. 28 —0-02 00 Aug. 27 —0-04 —0°2
Sept. 24 ~0-04 —0'1 Sept. 22 —0°03 0:0
The planet (124) (named Abeste) a few days ago reached its
stationary point, so that now its right ascension is increasing.
Its brightness, now about 11-2 magnitude, will permit observa-
tions for some time yet.
SCIENTIFIC: INTELLIGENCE.
J. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1. On the Chemical Efficiency of Sunlight ; by Jamns Dewar
Esq. (Phil. Mag., Oct. 1872.)—Of all the processes proposed to
pot one has yet sed in strictly dynamical meas
18 18 owing to the very small amount of energy to be measured
necessitating very peculiar processes its recognition. The
ecess ecul ;
chemical actions generally induced by light are of the “Trigger”
or “ Relay:” description—that is, bear no necessary relation to the
i There is natural
power envolved by the transformation. e one
7 ”
So far as I'am aware, the following passage, extracted from
Helmholtz’s Lectures “On the Conservation of ine
? F
Must suppose that these chemical rays afford that amount of
~
402 Scientific Intelligence.
e T
are absorbed by the green leaves of plants, and the energy which
is stored up in the form of chemical force in the interior of the
ants. We are not yet able to make so accurate a measurement
of both these stores of energy as to be able to show that there is
an equivalent proportion. We can only show that the amount of
energy which the rays of the sun bring to the work is completely
carbon which during one year, on the surface of a square foot m
our latitude, can be produced under the influence of ‘solar rays.
This quantity, when used as fuel and burnt to produce carbonic
acid, gives so much heat that 291 Ibs. of water could be heated
1 N
comes down during a year to one square foot is sufficient to raise
the temperature of 430,000 Ibs. of water 1°C. The am
of heat which can be produced by fuel growing upon on Mi
foot during one year is, as you see from these figures, a very ea
fraction of the whole amount of solar heat which can be produ
by the solar rays. It is only the 1477th part of the whole are
of solar light. It is impossible to determine the quantity of sir
eat so accurately that we could detect the loss of so sm
a fraction as is absorbed by plants and converted into other sagge
of energy. Therefore, at present, we can only show that the
sidering that active growth only takes place during five eee i
the year, we may safely adopt ;4, of the total energy of ee
as a fair value of the conserved power, on a given area of t :
. earth’s surface in this latitude during the course of the pone
As chlorophy] in one or other of its forms is the substance throug!
which light becomes absorbed and chemical decomposition ¢™
i i a 0
sues, it would be interesting to acquire some ide the eg
ed by a given erea of leaf-surface bacon. ple
course of a day, and to compare this with the total availa
ties, provided we could determine the equation of chemical trans
Chemistry and Physics. 4038
Boussingault’s recent observations on the amount of carbonic
acid decomposed by a given area of green leaf seem to me to
afford interesting data for a new deter iMbnaion of the efficiency of
sunlight. By experiments made between the months of January
and October under the most favorable circumstances in atmo-
spheres rich in CO2, one square ae ae of leaf was ey! ha
a id in one hour, as a mean, 5°28 cub. centims. of CO®,
in darkness to evolve. during the same period of time 0°33 bah
centim . of CO?, In other words, one ie er metre of Ee
The Giihaitity of avery e acid decomposed does not represent
the whole work of sunlight for the time, as water is simultane-
laborious researches on vegetable physiology, says, “Si l’on envi-
Sage la vie végétale dans son ensemble, on est convaincu que la
feuille est la premiére 6tape des glucoses que plus ou moins m odi-
8, on trouve répartis dans les diverses parties de l’organisme ;
que e’est la feuille qui les élabore aux Sat de Pacide carbonique
et de Peau.”"—dnn. de Chemie, tom. xiii, p 415. e funda-
Mental chemical reaction taking place in the leaf may therefore
be represented as follows
Be UU. Be) ee ED ee OO
(2 age FO mee" te OF
tape sugar. :
absorption of a large amount of energy ; : if we enue
i i ‘0 Ay “HE,
which can he shown to be very little, the calculated result is made
& Maxim whereas the gongeneapian of (2) pte attended with
an evolution of heat, diminishes considerably the amount of
Power required, Happily Preakicod's he determination of the
thermal value of grape-sugar leaves no doubt as to the true equiv-
alent of work done in its formation. Taking the following
* The rate at which the leaf functions is dependent on the luminous intensity.
The relative amounts, apenas of carbonic acid decomposed through the action
of the different colored rays are proportional to their luminous power; and the
curve of mange cigeed is found to follow the curve of Fraunhofer. This proves that
the sie ings we form of equal luminous impressions is in reality due to equal
a, ; ;
\
into two postions °
identical thermal effects by absorption. This does not prove = each ray has the
total energy, but only that in all probability those at equal distances
enter nda of te mea ve-length in ‘dis ndrinall ‘ght-epectrure of the nuh
404 Scientific Intelligence.
thermal values CO,O = 68,000, H 2,0 =68,000, C®H!? O&=
642,000, 1 cub. centim. of CO? decomposed as in (i would require
ramme-units of heat, or its mma srg alent, whereas the
complete change into grape sugar of the same amount of carbonic
acid requires only 4°78 gramme un ie "But , we ate seen before,
1 square decimetre of green leaf functions at "the rate of 5°28 cub.
centims. of carbonic acid Paiiailat ed per hour; therefore 5°28 +
4°78 — 25-23 represents the number of gramme-heat-units con-
served through the absorption of light in the above period of time.
Pouillet estimates the mean total solar radiation per square
decimetre exposed normally to the sun’s rays in or near Paris, per
our, as 6,000 gramme-units, so that 6,000 — 25:23 = ats repre-
sents the fraction of the entire energy conserved. The estimate is
by no means too great, as Boussingault has shown the leaf may
function at twice the above rate for a limited ames and as both
sides of the leaf are included in the measurement of the green
surface in his memoir, we ought to double the es for a leaf
exposed perpendicularly to the sun’s rays, increasing the above
as ig ig 3 120th art.
nee has a strong absorptive action on the rays of light of low
eee G just those rays that are in part selected by chloro-
phyl), bic the well wn a lines of the we
spectrum. 8 esence, refore, of varying quantities
aqueous Vv epee in t pote cma in a atpodalod produces a con-
siderable difference of rate in the osition ae iB the
d
pom sition. Thus the same plant in different ee con-
ditions may gaboriie different substances.
n the Law of Extraordinary a in Iceland he
by a. G. soca M.A., Sec. R.S. (Proce. Roy. Soc.)—It 1s pee
—— years since I carried out, in the case of Iceland ised
met of examination of the law of refraction which I desert
admit of scrutiny, across the two acute angles, in Pade of ore
wave-normal within the crystal oe ig respectively iné india as
of 90° and 45° to the axis. The he cut fa the
referred by Thode to ‘to thé clea oe Pinkie and thereby t°
axis. The =_ observed was the bright D of a soda-flame.
Geology and Natural History. 405
The result obtained was, that Huygens’ construction gives the
true law of double refrac tion within the limits of errors of obser-
e
I intend to prese sent to the vis ted Society a detailed account
of the observations; but in the mean time the publication of
this preliminary notice of the pelt obtained may possibly
be useful to those Noe, Ses in the theory of double refraction.—
Phil. Mag., IV, xliv
3. ok a new Galvanic Pile, of economic construction ; by
M. Garrrr.—The high price of galvanic en and the difficulty
of procuring them being often an obstacle to the applications
which might be made of them, I essayed the ‘aoc of de-
vising an apparatus that one could make anyw without the aid
of the professional workman, with pis sen Alte of little value,
widely spread in commerce, and possessing the essential quality of
so roqpte im ae effects.
é m, used som years since on tele graphic lines ;
but its elements are different. It co sists = a aa into which
dip two rods—one of lead, the other of zinc. The leaden “ne aod
ape to the bottom ; the zinc is eotelk. shorter. The bot
the vessel is coated with red oxide of lead (minium); hid
te — liquid is water Te 10 per cent of hablorby arate
amm
& bun
the cent ag of zine formed does not sensibly alter the con-
ductivity of the exciting liquid; , ts constancy is reci finally
expense is almost nothing when the circuit is open.— Com
oe ae de _— d. des pene Je ne 15, 1872, p 120.— Phil. Mag.,
;x
Il. Grotogy AND NatTuRAL History.
1. Discovery Mf Fossil Quadrumana in the Eocene of Wyom-
ing ; by O. C. Marsu.—An examination of more complete apo
mens of some of the extinct Mammals already described by th
Writer from the Eocene deposits of the Rocky Mountain region,
clearly indicate that among them are several representatives of the
yl er obs asdgarpens Although these remains differ widely from all
forms of that group, their mite Big al tant iat 9 lard
that the og should be placed with t $ coer
» Thinolestes, anit Fidos olenn, en. ave the principal
parte of the skeleton much as in some of t the cor.
Tespondence in man the er bones being very close. The
anterior part of the lore jaws is similar to that of the Marmosets,
406° Scientific Intelligence.
but the angle is more produced downward, and much inflected.
The teeth are more numerous than in any known Quadrumana.
Some of the species have apparently forty teeth, arranged as fol-
lows: Incisors = canines * premolars and molars i A full de-
scription of these interesting remains, the first of the order detected
in this country, will be given by the writer at an early day.
Yale College, Oct. 7th, 1872.
2. Note on a new genus of Carnivores from the Tertiary of
Wyoming ; by O. C. Marsu.—Additional remains of the large
Carnivore described by the writer, on page 203, as Limnofelis
from L. ferox. The canines and premolars of the lower jaw some-
what resemble those in the Hyena, but there were only two
inc i
3. Notice of a New Reptile from the Cretaceous; by O. ©.
Marsu.—An interesting addition to the Reptilian fauna of the
as is avery small Saurian, which differs
widely from any hitherto discovered. The onl
possess. e
planted in distinct sockets, and are directed obliquely backward.
ach j
and with very acute summits. The rami were united in front
: re is no distinct groove on their mner
surface, as in all known Mosasauroids. The dentigerous portio?
of jaw i i i st
an
coverer, Professor B. F. Mudge, who found the remains 10 the
upper Cretaceous shale of Western Kansas.
Yale College, Oct. 7th, 1872. /
4. ent Eruption of Mauna Loa; by Rev. Trrus COAX:
(From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Hilo, Hawaii, Aug. 27,1872).
—On the night of the 10th inst. a grand and lofty pillar of lig #
rose from the summit of the mountain to the height of some 2,000
feet. This was directly over the great terminal crater, Mokua-
weoweo. It was most distinctly seen at first from Kilauea and
Geology and Natural History. 407
On the evening of the 13th we had the first perfect view from
Hilo. The illuminated. cloud of steam and gases which hung
over the crater sometimes rose in a well-defined vertioal column
to a great height, and then the higher portion would. expand,
forming an inverted cone; again it seemed lighted up above the
mountain and Lg out like an umbrella over the crater. The
changes of form, the expansion, ela bagi and convolutions of
the . BAS pile, could be distinctly marked, and also the
rapid variations in brilliancy dependent on the greater or less
intensity of the Ber lavas in the abyss nee
tis now seventeen days since we first saw the eruption, and
still the great furnace is in full blast. The action is, evidently,
intense, Of all the demonstrations made in this vast ee on
the summit of the mountain since our yest in Hilo,
have equalled this in magnitude, in vehem HES in rane
8 yet It 1s confined to the deep crater ; ee we kn ot whether
the terrific forees now raging in this abyss will rend the walls
f the mountain and let out a flow of lavas to the eS or De
their fury within the recesses of the mountain. e from
the border of the ial must now be fearfully g :
Tam ashamed to say, that, so far as we Aarne no one me yet
visited the region ‘of eruption, jaf ite o py age (nearly 72),
in ‘ta mily, I hould before this
tanch of Reed and Richardson in Kapapala, Kau, you can aie up
on horseback. in a Lome I hope soon to hear that some one has
been to the samm
Ten thousand ect below the summit fires is Kilauea. This
crater ha n very active of late. The south lake, which
Was so dee en I last wrote you, has long been filled, and it
has over many times, sending off broad streams of incan-
reat
Southern portion of Kilauea, van cones that uff and screech
23d inst., a tidal wave. It occurred at a calm,
e sea in our ae rose silently and rapidly, like an sboqming tide,
to the height of four pet ine pais Ina ix minutes it had
Wing fainter, until the “ia Tees to its normal condition.
e had no earthquake at the
e have had occasional slight earthquakes of late, but no
Severe periee
5. Ascent of Mauna Loa to the scene of Eruption.—The fol-
lowing i is an extract from an account of the ascent of Mauna Loa
Yo the place of et ag published in the Pacific C eamnainegae
Advertiser of Sept. 2
408 Scientific Intelligence.
The summit.—Before us lay a rugged plain, a two miles in
diameter, of black lava, overlaid in many places with fields of
brown a-a, and everywhere torn into unheard of shapes by the
fierce power that had upheaved the whole. To our right rose a
remarkable Be poe! or sry showing black against the sky.
On every hand deep crevices, and spent waves of lava
had dashed coirester i in tye riad shapes, and so congealed: Hurry-
ing on as well as we were able, we final ly reached a cul-de sae,
formed by a branching a-a flow, and here we dismounted, and
tethered our animals for the night. This done, we took our way
five hundred yards over a ehh strip of rugged lava, and all at
once pee upon the edge of the
Crater of Mie caob sind ACI e before us, at our feet as it
were, yawned a terrific chasm, with black perpendicular walls
eure the eye daw some 800 feet, to where, in the inky black-
of the lower basin, sprung up in glorious sparkling light, self-
sang a mighty fountain of clear molten lav
Referring to the en er published herewith the reader will
find that we reached the crater’s edge on or ‘eastern side at the
point marked by the outline of a tent. The nt walls that en-
circle the pit, marked a, on our side fell jpedpanidhiouldety about five
hundred feet, wiiie on the opposite or pias side they descended
nearer eight hundr ed, to where the plateau marked 8 form eda pons
to the crater, broken down again to form " the pit marked c, :
general shape of the central crater, Mokuaweoweo, was an ws?
lar ellipse, rather more than three-quart ers of a mile through i
cs etd axis, by about a mile and a quarter from the dividing bye
arked by a dotted line on the left, that separated it from F, 7
proce known as Pohaku Hanalei, to a similar though not so we
ebay artition wall on the ri ht hand et joined to it the crater
poking id ‘J air
ec
fro
liquid lava, surpassin on beautiful to gaze upo 3
fiery fountain, a ak incline of ae thrown up by this
Geology and Natural Efistory. 409
lower basin, The basin itself oceupied about one-third of the
space bounded by the ancient walls of the crater.
_ Flowing down the sides of the symmetrical cone that the fall-
ing stream of lava was rapidly forming were many bright rivers
. 2 #
Sented a unique and beautiful appearance. On the extreme right
entire area of the basin was overflowed by the melted lava.
e us, and
called frequently to each other to note when some tall jet, rising
had reached the summit level of the mountain,
we heard the muffled roar of the long pent up gases as they rushed
out of the opening which their force had rent in the basin’s solid
bed. And now that we were in full view of the grand display,
Sparkling upward jet rising with tremendous force from out an
meandescent lake. Following up the glowing stream, we saw it
arch itself and pour over as it were in one broad beautiful cas-
Cade. While the ascending stream was almost silvery in its intense
brightness, the falling sheet was slightly dulled by cooling, and
thus the two were ever rising, falling, shooting up in brilliant
8. Voleanie Energy: An Attempt to develop its true Origin
ad Cosmical Relations ; by Roserr Mauiet, F.R.S. (Proce.
Am. Jour. Gage 3 Srrigs, VoL. IV, No. 23.—Nov., 1872,
410 Scientific Intelligence.
Roy. Soc., No. 136, 1872). (Abstract). 7 yao author passes in eo
review the principal theories which in modern times have
proposed to account for voleanic activity,
The chemical theory, which owed its partial acceptance chiefly
to the fame of Davy, may be dismissed, as all known facts tend
to show that the chemical ene rgies of the materials of our globe
were almost wholly exhausted prior to the consolidation of its
2 se
s
The mechancial theory, which finds in a nucleus still in a state
of liquid nen a store of heat and of lava, ete., is only tenable
on the admission of a very thin solid crust ; and even caeomgl a
crust of about 30 miles thick it is difficult to see how surface-water
is to gain access to ” fused nucleus, yet without water there can
be no volcano. More recent investigation on the part of mathe-.
maticians has been su panel to prove that the earth’s crust is not
thin. Attaching little value to the calculations as to this, based
on precession, the author yet concludes, on other grounds, that the
solid crust is probably of great thickness, and that, although there
is evidence of a nucleus much hotter than the crust, there is
certainty that any part of it remains liquid; but if so, it is in any
case too deep to render it conceivable that poe wb should
make its way down to it. The results of geological spent
and of physico- snathemationl reasoning thus oppose each other, 8°
that some source of volcanic heat closer to the erage venana
be sought. The h hesis to supply this, pro Hopkins
and adopted by Piel viz: of i ooeaea pay bts taleos of liquid
matter infusion at no great depth from the surface remaining fuse
unded b
for ages, surroun y colder and solid rock, and with (by hyp
thesis) access of surface-water, the author views as feeble a ub-
sustainable. bie
source, then, for voleanic heat remains still to be found ;
if found under conditions admitting to it water, opel? of cra
sea, all known phenomena of volcanic action on our earth’s
face are explicable.
author points out various relations and points of connec
tion pecirece voleanic phenomena, seismic phenomena, and the
lines of mountain elevation, which sufficiently indicate ‘hat they
are all due to the play of one set of cosmical forces, thoug
ferent in degree of energy, which has been constantly decaying
with time.
He traces the ways in which the contraction of our globe a
been met, from the period of its original fluidity to the prese”
state: first, by deformation of the spheroid, he oi generall
e oar, of mountain elevation ine
C. Prevost was the oaly 1 true one—that which asc ribes
ang d solid crust of sufficient
uced by the
ressures pone prod
Geology and Natural History. 411
go
cleus, the work expended in mutual crushing and dislocation of its
: ; p
ments completed by him:—the one on the actual amount of heat
capable of being Es
Species of rocks, chosen so as to be representative of the whole series
of known rock formations from Oolites down to the hardest erys-
talline rocks; the other, on the co-efficients of total contraction
between fusion and solidification at existing mean temperature
of the atmosphere of basic and acid slags, analogous to melted
roc
The latter experiments were conducted on a very large scale,
and the author points out the great errors of preceding experi-
menters, Bischoff and others, as to these co-efficients.
By the aid of these experimental data, he is enabled to test the
theory produced when compared with such facts as we possess as
to the rate of present cooling of our globe, and the total annual
ees of volcanic action taking place upon its surface and within
crust.
He shows, by estimates which allow an ample margin to the
best data we possess as to the total annual vulcanicity of all sorts
of our globe at present, that less than one fourth of the total heat
at present annually lost by our globe is upon his theory sufficient
_ to account for it; so that the secular cooling, small as it is, now
S0lng on is a sufficient primum mobile, leaving the greater portion
412 Scientific Intelligence.
still to be dissipated by radiation. The author then brings his
views into contact with various known facts of vulcanology and
seismology, showing their accordance. :
e also shows that to the heat developed by partial tangential
thrusts within the solid crust are due those perturbations of hypo-
geal increment of temperature which Hopkins has shown cannot
eferred to a cooling nucleus and to differences of conductivity
alone. He further shows that this view of the origin of volcanic
heat is independent of any particular thickness being assigned to
the earth’s solid crust, or to whether there be at present a liquid
fused nucleus, all that is necessary being a hotter nucleus than
far unexplained fact that the elevations upon our moon’s surface,
and t
vast when compared with those upon our globe.
Finally, he submits that if his view will account for all the
7. Solvent action of water. From the Anniversary Address of J.
Prestwich, President of the Geological Society, February, 1872.—
ed with the solvent action of the water on the strata it bndinin
The analyses, made for the Commission by Drs. Frankland an
ames
water at Ditton gives 20-78 grains per gallon of solid residue. It
was also shown by Drs. Letheby and baling and Professor Abel
that the unfiltered waters of the Thames Companies, which take
oO
ORS Sp SE Ae a gee a Ae pea
Geology and Natural History. 413
Some general estimates have already been made by Professors
Ramsay and Geikie of the quantity of mineral matter carried
down in solution by the THames ; but the more exact data supplied
to the Commission enables us to make some additions to previous
results. Taking the mean daily discharge of the Thames at King-
down by the Thames every twenty-four hours is equal to 3,364,286
Ibs, or 1502 tons, which is equal to 548,230 tons in the year. Of
this daily quantity about two-thirds, or say 1000 tons, consist of
carbonate of lime, and 238 tons of sulphate of lime; while limited
Proportions of carbonate of magnesia, chlorides of sodium and
potassium, sulphates of soda and potash, silica and traces of iron,
alumina and phosphates constitute the rest. If we refer a small
portion of the carbonates, and the sulphates and chlorides chiefly,
to the impermeable argillaceous formations washed by the rain-
Water, we shall still have at least 10 grains per gallon of carbonate
of lime, due to the Chalk, Upper Greensand, Oolitic strata, and
Maristone the superficial area of which, in the Thames basin above
Ingston, is estimated by Mr. Harrison at 2072 square miles.
Therefore the quantity of carbonate of lime carried away from
this area by the Thames is equal to 797 tons daily, or 290,905 tons
annually, which gives 140 tons removed yearly from each square
mile; or, extending the caleulation to a century, we have a total
removal of 29,090,500 tons, or of 14,000 tons from each square
e of surface. Taking a ton of chalk, as a mean, as equal to 15
cubic feet, this is equal to the removal of 210,000 cubic feet per
century for each square mile, or of +, of an inch from the whole
Surface in the course of a century, so that in the course of 13,200
years a quantity equal to a thickness of about 1 foot would be
temoved from our Chalk and Oolitic districts.
8. Correlations of the Coal Measures of Britain, France and
Belgium. From the Annive Address of the President of
the Geological Society, Joseru Presrwicu, F.R.S., February,
1872.—It may be asked if any correlation can be established be-
tween the coal measures of Bristol and South Wales, and those of
i
ing mass of from 2000 to 3000 feet of rock called Pennant exists
in both the Welsh and Bristol coal field; and the total mass of
Coal-measures is not very different, it being, say, 10,500 feet in the
one, and 8500 in the other, and there being in Wales 76, and in
Somerset 55 workable seams of coal. In the Hainaut (or Mons
414 Scientific Intelligence.
and Charleroi) basin, the measures are 9400 feet sap. with 110
seams of coal; in the Liége basin 7600 feet, with 85 seams; and
in Westphalia 7200 Sor with 117 seams. On is other hand,
none of our central or northern coal basins, with the exception of
the Lancashire field, aesond half this thickness, and more generally
are nearer one fourth. Further, the difference which exists be-
orth
steam, and smiths’ coal in the a equally exists between our
northern coals and those of Belgium, which latter show, on the
one hand, close affinities with see of Wales and Bristol. I am
informed by two experienced Belgian hoe ing ets hat and
nomical purposes. Organic remains afford us a little help; but
not sufficient is yet known of their relative distribution. The
) elgiu
similarity of mass and structure, uniformity of subjection to like
oe was in ihe north ak the cc cinaitiows fitted for the formation
of coal first set in. The common Stigmaria ficoides and various
ats aera Pe appear oat the base of the Carboniferous or i
uedian series of Northumberland, which there overlies con-
Fornably the Tesies Old Red Sandstone ; and productive beds of
coal exists low down in the Moaataindiimestone series. ese
ri
the coal fiooth: me in eatlier in the Seth, it seeme to have been
P rolonged further south, under more favorable conditions, to @
ater period. What those conditions were—whether the proximity
of a greater land-surface, of a longer and aes subsidence, wit
more numerous rests—we cannot yet pretend to to say.
9. Recent Observations in the Bermudas ; by MatruEew JONES.
—As my late visit to these islands has placed me in possession
facts relating to their original aspect of a somew . conclusive
nature, I deem it advisable to communicate sis in a brief form
instead of awaiting the time spew for the separates bof a more
elaborate paper on the =
On previous occasio 2a always regretted my inability,
from lack of time, to jade ate aonb into their geological ¢
acter in the hope of discovering some satisfactory clue to thelr
primitive condition. I oi aware that in different parts of the
Geology and Natural History. 415
tion, to conceive that such layers of red earth were first formed
4
surfaces, and became covered to their respective depths by accu-
l natural causes hardened
Indeed, I have always been led to suppose from appearances that
the whole group was the result of an upheaval of the ocean bed
slightly above the water level, and a gradual elevation afterward
into which contained stalactites and red eart Again within the
last few months, I have, through the kindness of his Excelleney
aio General Lefroy, C.B., F.R.S., the present Governor,
lneod in : : :
ing the past two years extensive submarine blastings have —
extremity of the islands, for the purpose o at a of suffi-
lent depth for the reception of the “Great Bermuda Dock,” which
attracted so much attention off Woolwich when launch e
4 layer of red earth two feet in thickness, containing remains of
i compact esi gag
.
416 Scientific Intelligence.
hat é eht feet will bring the
whole space which intervenes between the present land and the
ra
erly direction—not only out to the reef, but to a greater distance.
ore
canus) which now inhabits them, were in the habit every evening
of winging their flight from the main island toward the north.
habit of this bird to leave its roosting place for distant feeding
rounds during the day, to return at random, is one of its well-
to
support the supposition that the Bermudas once presented a much
gore extensive aspect than they do at present, and certain addi-
tional evidences which I hope to Fe forward shortly in a collec
form, will, I conceive, tend to confirm my impression that th
uri
which extended in somewhat semicircular form for a distance of
aoyenty or eighty miles, and which have suffered submergence sal
a depth only to be correctly ascertained by borings, which might
be successfully accomplished under the auspices of the Govern-
ment at a triflmg expence.—Wature, Aug. 1.
10. History of the names Cambrian and Silurian in Geology,
by T. Srerry Hunr. 64 pp. 8vo. From the Canadian Nat
uralist for April and July, 1872.—Prof. Hunt has here made
valuable contribution to historical geology. But the conclusion
of the whole matter that the name Cambrian should be now BH”
in this and other lands for the Primordial or part of it, because
this would be in accordance with “historic truth,” does not se¢e™
note Rak r to follow.
__ In England, the so-called Cambrian has turned out, as Hee a
—— Primordial in its upper half at least—a part now call 2
Geology and Natural History. 417
the Menevian group,* with the underlying Harlech grits; that is,
it contains Paradoxides and the same range of generic cokes that
Barrande and others had previously found in the European Pri-
mordial ; and a transfer, therefore, of all to the Primordial was
natural. But Prof. Hunt says, after alluding to the views of some
others, that Barrande’s course “is a still greater violation of his-
toric truth, ” as if error which history had made venerable might
never ge eradicated from science,
The term Silurian, as used in Great Britain, has included a
wide nics es formations, from the Lingula Flags to the top of the
Ludlow group, and all this in spite of a wide range in the tribes of
fossil species, and notwithstanding the gevcomma ity between
the Upper and Lower Silurian. Now the Lingula Flags pass into
the Cambrian without break or unconformability, and with but a
small Boat a in the life. wWelaa good sg api — is there for
is slaving “historic truth” as much as to throw the Primordial
sup. ‘Historic truth,” in fact, has little weight in
the action, _ though eine. Whi as regards t the labors of two
ity fo
ll. Report of the Geological Survey of the State of 8 Ham reat °f
shire, showing its progress during the year 1871;
Hisshiea i Ph.D. 56 P. - Nashu aa, x H., is13—Prot
ite
: is
accompanied b by a colored a3 owing the areas occupie
the different kings of roc ere are ae desoripaons of oe
hee (Conocephaliter) ariolaris, C. icks, C. ‘anon C. (?) hum-
7s, Pein age (near Conocoryphe) ‘peimordiaiis, Agnostus princeps,
itia Solvensis Jones,
unctatus, Leperdi
See further, Quart Jo ur. Geol. Soc., xx, 233, xxi, 476, xxv, 51, xxviii, 173 and
Rep. Brit. Assoc. ice 1866, 1866 and 1868.
418 Scientific Intelligence.
rocks, and a number of analyses of the contained feldspar. The
Report also fos oe very valuable tables of heights along different
railroads, and in the mountains. ere are brief accounts also of
iron-ore in Bartlett, and the alluvial gold of Ladin Stream. Th
preparation of the final — Report on the geology of the State
Is stated to have been be
12. Memorie per servire calla Deserizione della Carta Geologica
@ Italia, Ae tis a cura del R. Comitato Geologico
Vol.L 364 pp. 8vo.—A beautiful volume of Italian geological
memoirs, ithiseenbed by a geological — of the Island of Elba,
13. On the Occurrence of Nativ aan Acid in Eastern
Texas; by J. W. Matret, Ph.D. (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1872.)—
Not far from the Gulf of Mexico, and within twenty-five or thirty
miles to the westward of t eches river, there occur at several
of open prairie—small drainage-wells and shallow pools of water
T
strongly sour to the taste. is sourness is due to the presence
of free sulphuric acid, which is ae by various salts, esp
ially aluminium an sulpb At most of these oe
n
gases are continually ecapitig (hydrogen sulphide, marsh gas, 4
carbonic anhydride), the bubbles burning readily on the application
of a light.
1g
At the bottom of the water in some instances, as at one —
where, by means of an artificial bank, a pond has been formed 0
some 250 feet in diameter, known locally as the “sour lake,” an
A
iety of p ‘
rounding soil, occasionally to such an extent that sods taken Up
with a _ ‘are set on fire and used to give light in the open air
at ni
Ata a point in Louisiana some fifty or — miles further east,
where, however, the acid water does not oceur, though combusti-
nore or less mingled with calcium carbonate, and underlaid nt
The circumstances connected with "the occurrence ©
of le A
gether | in this region of combustib etroleu sulphur,
g reg gio us as Pp F ts
e walphatio acid Near “witch seems to be pense sal
h a
Foes Soa by Dr. Mallet sitaiaet o less than ye
grms. sulphuric acid (H,SO,) to the Btie or 370 grs. from
imperial gallon, this exceedi ng any" amount hitherto ——
Geology and Natural History. 419
other es unless the acid spring of the Paramor de Ruiz, in
New anada, be an exception, examined b wy, who does not
“i pr he oa how much of the very large aati of sulphuric acid
is uncombined with bases. The water of the Rio Vinagre,
gi npeaiesy a Sewn Tale from North Carolina ; by Mr.
Apvexr, of the Laboratory of the University of Virginia.
(Chemical News, No. 654.)\—Among the minerals referred to
there was a very beautiful “soapstone, from the Nantahela Moun-
tains, 8 miles from the mouth of Nantahela River, Swayne Co.
{formerly Cherokee Co.), N. C.” It had been sawn _ slabs -d
about 14 inches thick, was very uniform in character, compac
with indistinct traces of foliated siaceture, white with a faint ay
ish shade, lustre pearly, streak white, moderately Se greasy
to the touch, hardness = about 1 1°25, sp. gr. == 2°82. Itr sembled
nephrite. Analysis afforded: Silica 57-72, magnesia 33°76, alu-
mina 2°52, iron — gee: so a 60110065
If the silica, magnesia, and w lone be considered, the
+iH, numbers ac EE resid re re the formula (SMO
O),S
The 6h ss gp is obviously oni from the foliated tale from
Webster, Jackson Co., N. C., analyzed by Genth — Jour., I,
q 3).
In the latter “ per cent of nickel oxide was foand, and but 0°34
per cent of wate
In the aaaceak now described there is no nickel.
ae) of Virginia, March 12, 1872.
Leucite.—Prof. vom Rath, the excellent e Ahern Stel Sond sf
ons. has found, through the examination of a twi crystal, a:
Well as by méastroutent that the crystals of Pesog instead of
son aera! trapezohedrons, are really tetragon
he occurrence in recent Pine timber of oe te
hy trocarbon hitherto known only in a fossil state; by W.
ALLET, Ph.D. (Proc, Brit. Assoc., 1872.)—Some nearly colorless
crystalline crusts, found in clefts between the
und to agree
ecu i in physical and chemical properties with the fichtelite of
romeis and Clark, and on seabyeia yielded—
ar n f * of of oe 7* 87°8
ae Cioticiets
Hydrogen
in og with the foemnlar 2(C, H 3 The fusing-point was found
420 Scientific Intelligence.
Botanical Publications and Intelligence.—Among the pub-
sett ee ee come to hand the most important to American
botanists 1
enera A aw an Arrangement of the North American
Lichens, by renee Tuckerman, M.A. Amherst: Edwin Nelson.
872. pp. xv, 281, 8vo.-—This small volume contains the i
and long- Ae yi! results at many years of earnest study, a
and completed. Then our students of lichens, and those who
would fain be such, will for the first time be supplied with er
books for the study, and those of the very highest order of meri
print and paper are truly excellent, and if, as the imprint in
cates, the composition and press-work were done in a coun
office, ae . regs derfi
The a of British India, by J. D. Hooxsr, CB. &e.,
sessed ee es Botanists. Part L . 208, 8vo. London: : L.
Reeve & Co, 1872.—The Indian Flora is here begun saath “in a
form po scope 8 with a vigor which render its completion hope
: os
f Dr.
Thomson’s Indian Flora, being CSR RDE g on account of the long
Geatianed ill-health of the latter and the manifold other duties %
e former, the task is now taken up m dvantageously in 8
nee — that of the other British Colonial floras, but still aie
eed, messy on the model of Dr, Hooker's Flora °
ndian species are described in it. The present half wee
begins with Pieindidanas and ends with Polygala ae te
Tho omson’s nam : : i
A. W. perk its
: oe a Monthly Record of e! togamic Botany and
Literature; edited by M. A. Cooke, M.A. Williams & Norgat®
8vo. In parts of 16 3; sixpe nee a number; five shillings *
___- year. —Three num Ful y—September, are before us; each has
a plate, colored or plain; ~~ although Sans naturally predomi
Geology and Natural History. 421
nate in the letter-press, the other lower SE et rs tod _—
share of attention. The characters of the Fungi des
f th
the State of New York, are here reproduced. A series of articles
by the veteran mycologist mish wee describing North American
Fungi, begins i in the thir n fact, A Cr
latter now published relates mainly to the Alsinew of the
World, from Mexico southward, and is edited by Dr. Garcke. It
is seldom wise to print posthumous manuscript which is not m8
completed by the author. For instance, Lastarriwa o
here included in the MUecebree or Paro nychiec, with the sea
that, although Remy, with all the characters before him, had
referred the genus to the Polygonacew, Mr. Bentham had cor-
rectly transferred it to the former order, and had even been antici-
pated by Kunze and ~~ ss.) by Kunth. If Rohrbach, and still
more, Bentham, had really noticed the orthotropous ovule and
Seed, , they could hardly fave failed to see the Polygonaceous ee
apes The genus, as we have elsewhere indicated, is as it were
& Chorieunite without . distinct gamophyllous involuere, “but
with perianth imitati
epg DeCandolle in eee ser bsoper publishes careers
o his
w Piperace ich have notice said e the psc
tation = that neve: in the pi iparese ay It re ns W
ops. olanderi,” from California, —_— on s sodiaeche Frio ee
and this abe vol. 18, part i, gh index lees: ec: synopsis
of all the known Ameri n species is a great he p. Fascicle 58,
which completes the sistant part of vol. - » ea oe Phyto-
remarks agin Caspary) that in all the pentamerous species of
a the second te faces oe axis, while in Aldrovranda the
ird
ond superposed to the enol D. intermedia cs e., D. longifolia
L., var. Americana) extends to Brazil, where D. graminifolia
represents our northern D. filiformis. Fascicle 59 is a very t
ne; it contains only the isetacece, which were elaborated =
the late Prof. Milde, sind the two sheets were re printed more t
422 Scientific Intelligence.
two years ago. They have been awaiting Prof. Braun’s account
of the Rhizocarpece and Isoetes, which, when issued, will complete
the volume of the higher Cryptogamia. ;
of. Hofmeister has accepted the botanical chair at Tiibingen,
vacated by the death of Von Mohl; Dr. Sachs succeeds Hofmeis-
Kiel. Prof. Kerner has been transferred from Innspruck to the
University of Prague. By a misprint in the July number of this
ournal, the name of the late Dr. Wight was given as Dr, Wright.
Herbarium of the late Dr. Curtis—A biographical notice of
gt ous ;
the types of the hundreds or even thousands of species which Dr.
Curtis has described, or at least determined and catalogued. Its
Bentham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum, vol. 2.—We bere
seen more of the earlier sheets of this volume, the first part ©
G
, so a text-book upon Chemical Technology, we UY
that more attention will be paid to teaching it systematically 1
our schools of science, |
_ _ 18. On Beavers and Beaver Dams in Mississippi ; = Mr.
(From a letter to one of the editors, date¢ Ray
; ppi, Sept. 12.)—I have resided in ss
Astronomy. 423
prenty since 1837, now for Bonny pant pa years. When I came
som.
avers here, it was replied, that there were a few, but no
could then tell me where there, was one of their dams in this
mee uoThoed,
And yet by the year 1850, their dams were to be found in nearly
all the streams in the county, that were not so small as to become
dry during our long summers, or two large for the operations
of the beaver. They continued to increase, greatly to the injury
of most of our low land, and to t ope ance of its cage pecs
In 1858 or 1859, a rofessional trapper from Wisconsin, if I a
not mistaken, caught seven oerere or eighty beavers in this wie
in less than a mo ti
They are pa increasing in this county, as I have no doubt they
are in all the ties of central Mississippi and Alabama, and
sea datitely chrosahiat both States. I have no doubt that, in
inds county, they are more than half as numerous as the popula-
tion. I now write in the Court House of the county, and they
can be found in sight of it, and at a less distance than one mile.
Ill. Astronomy.
ectrum of the Aurora; by Evwarp I Hoxpen, - Lieut.
obtained; then Maik a wide slit it was turned on the aurora, a
the foltocin sketch ogy which was carefully verified, so that it
Tepresents exactly what I
Blue.
M >
The —— MN is what I conceived to be the length of the
Spectrum given by my instrument under usual conditions. The
Violet (extreme) rays seemed cut off, and I saw 1° a broad and
bright red band CR), 2a 24 a black space equal in width to it (B), 8
4 green and bright band (G) nearly as wide, then a faint
of » ace Hight, om = bright line in the blue (1), ‘hen a bright ie
gib] t whose color could not be ee nce owe (2).
The. relative Serie for my instrument are kept in the drawing.
424 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
Ithen opened Angstrdm’s “Spectre Normal,” and saw that he
gave the auroral line as in the yellow. I observed this green line
again, and cannot persuade myself that it was yellow. The black
space I am i i
IV. MIscELLANEOUS ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. Institute of Technology, Boston.—Prof. T. Sterry Hunt, for
twenty-five years connected with the Geological Survey of Canada,
has entered upon his duties as Professor of Geology in the Insti-
tute of Technology. ites
Annual Rep. of the Director of the Meteorological Obser-
vatory, Central Purk, New York. 42 pp. 8v the close of
this excellent Report there is a series of synoptic charts, one
each month of the year, giving the mean height of the barometer,
that of the thermometer, and the strength of the wind for the
month. :
3. Hayden’s Geological Exploration in the Rocky Mountains.
—A letter from Dr. Hayden, dated Gallatin City, Montana, “—
10, states that his two parties have been successful in their phate
at every point; and that no accident or sickness has occurre™
Dr. Hayden’s branch of the exploration will have for the Report
map of a territory 10,000 square miles in area, with contour
lines of 100 feet.
the 30th October, in his 47th year. He had recently returned
from the meeting of t ican Dubuque.
residence at Swanton, in Northern Vermont, as pastor of
' led to his examining into its geology, and especially t
. : i
observer. P
Joun F. Frazer, LL.D., Professor of Natural Philosophy
Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, died on Satu By
afternoon, at a quarter before three o’clock, of heart disease.
further notice will be given in our next issue.
ogy of Lower Louisiana and the Salt Deposit on Petite Anse Islant
ard, Ph.D., Prof. Chem., Uniy. Mississippi. 34 pp- 4t0-
R-
.
ic
carl
oo
gqtom™
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS,
[THIRD SERIES]
Art. XLIX.—On a simple and precise method of measuring the
wave-lengtis and velocities of sound in Gases ; and on an appli-
cation of the method in the invention of an Acoustic eler ;
by Atrrep M. Mayer, Ph.D., Professor of Physics in the
Stevens Institute of Technology.
_ The measurement of the wave-length.—Without any consid-
eration as to the velocity of sound or the number of vibra-
tions producing a given note, we can accurately measure the
wave-length of the note by the following simple arrangement
of apparatus, which is an instrumental simplification of the
method first used by Zoch (Pogg. Ann., vol. exxviii, p. 497.)
.. On the acoustic bellows fix an organ pipe, and place opposite
its mouth a Helmholtz resonator responding to its note.
of the manometric flame-micrometer* adjust the two flames so
that their serrations Se coincide when viewed in a cubical
evolving mirror. Now suppose, for simplicity, that the pipe
ives 342 complete vibrations in one second ; then, taking the
Velocity of sound at 842 meters per second (at 15° C.), it will
Tequire ;}, of a second for an aerial pulse to traverse one
._* See “On the method of detecting the phases of vibration in the air surround-—
ing a sounding body; and thereby measuring directly in the vi air the —
length of its i its wave-surface,” Nov. No. of this
Journal, In this paper I gave the credit of the suggestion on which I f my
t I find that it is due to Zoch (Pogg. Ann., vol. exxviii).
Acoustique without giving credit to the real inventor. —
Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serms, Vou. IV, No. 24,—Derc., 1872.
26
426 A. M. Mayer on a method of measuring the
meter. Therefore, if the resonator tube be lengthened 4 meter
the serrations of its flame will no longer coincide with those of
the pipe, but will bisect the spaces between the latter; for an
impulse from the resonator has now to traverse such an increased
length that it arrives at its manometric flame ;1,; of a second
later than before the tube was lengthened. If the tube be
lengthened one meter, or a whole wave-length (German), the
displacement of the resonator serrations will amount to the
entire distance separating the centers of two contiguous serra-
tions; and on elongating the tube n number of wave-lengths,
n number of such displacements will occur. Thus can be mea
sured, not only one, but many wave-lengths, for I have not seen
sensibly diminished the intensity of the pulses after they have
traversed many meters of firm thick tubing. Therefore the
error made in the determination of the distance occupied by
many wave-lengths will not be greater than that occurrmg
the measure of the length of only one; and, consequently, this
error being divided over so great a number will proportionally
increase the accuracy of the deduced length of a single wave.
and form, closed by a large membrance which vibrates
oe with the fundamental note of the pipe, and proceed as
above.
gas, by the process I have described, greatly exceed in 8
curacy the results heretofore obtained by Dulong, Wertheim
and others who deduced the length of the wave and velocity
from measures of the internodal distances in organ pIpes;
which embodies the principle invented by Herschel, and which
has its highest development in the exquisite interference @pP®
_ratus which Kénig has recently described in Poggendorff’s Ann®
ten, Bd. exlvi, p. 165.* ,
In my lecture-room I have hung up before the students *
series of gum tubes having lengths of }, 1, 11, 2, 24, 3, ete. WaV®
* See the translation of Konig’s paper in this No. of the Journal.
Wave-lengths and Velocities of sound in Gases. 427
lengths of different notes. The tubes, forming any one of these
series, are used with the organ-pipe and resonator correspond-
ing to their note; and as they are successively adapted to the
resonator, they cause the serrations of its flame successively to
coincide with and to bisect those of the organ pipe flame.
Students after such exhibitions do not depart from the room
with their usual skepticism as to the existence of an acoustic
wave-length, but look upon the tubes as measurés of actua
entities,
3. The Acoustic Pyrometer—Having devised this simple
arrangement of apparatus for measuring the number of wave-
lengths contained in a given tube, the idea occurred to me that
T could use the method in determining the variation in the num-
ber of wave-lengths contained in this tube, caused by a change
in the temperature of the air which it contained; and thus
Succeed in readily determining any temperature to which the
tube might be exposed.
The accuracy of this (as far as I know) entirely new method
of pyrometry, and the facility of its application can be judge
of by the following discussion.
The formula v= jon (1+ at) id gives the velocity of
sound in air of a known temperature. This formula, as is well
known, is reduced numerically to V= 333™ / 1+ 00367 én
which, V=the velocity of sound at the temperature ¢ centigrade ;
338= the velocity of sound in meters, at 0° C.; and 00367 the
coefficient of expansion of air under a constant pressure. We
will suppose that we have outside of the furnace, whose tem-
perature we would measure, an UT’, organ pipe; that we have
laced opposite its mouth an UT, resonator; and that tubes
rom pipe and resonator lead to contiguous gas jets placed before
the revolving mirror. We will also assume that the air in and
around the organ pipe is at 0° C., and that the serrations of the
ames of pipe and resonator are brought to coincide when 13
meters of metal tube, connecting the resonator with its mano-
metric capsule, are placed in a furnace which also has the tem-
ature of 0° ©. Therefore the length of a wave in the
urnace tube is 3% =0™-65, and it will contain 20 wave-lengths.
Now gradually raise the temperature of the furnace to 820° C.
As the temperature rises we will see the serrations of the
resonator flame gradually slide over those of the organ pipe
flame, and when the temperature has reached 820° C. we will
have observed that the serrations of the resonator flame have
glided over 10 times the distance separating the centers of two
contiguous serrations of the flame of the organ pipe: for at
498 A. M. Mayer on a method of measuring the
820° C. the air in the furnace tube will have ia ae to 4
times its volume at 0° C., and therefore
333 1- ate 0a xe20)
A= it will contain 3 the number of wave-
lengths it aid ‘eitien at O° C., and the length of one of these
waves in the tube will be 1:3 meter.
We will now determine the limit of accuracy of the method
by elevating the temperature of the furnace 100°, or to 920° C.
At this temperature the velocity of the si po in the furnace
tube will equal 696 sf peter, and the length of the wave at
this velocity will be 1°36. But 1™-36—1"-3=0"-06, the differ-
ence in wave- length pees by the increase in temperature
from 820° to 920°, and sufficient to cause the serrations to be
displaced ‘46 of the distance separating the centers of two con-
tiguous serrations of the organ pipe flame. But by means of
the manometric flame micrometer ;';th of this displacement can
be measured, therefore, we can measure an increase of 10°
Gm temperature above 820°.
Fro examination of the well established formula for the
« Siternination of the velocity of sound, it will be seen that the
: @ecuracy of our determinations of furnace temperatures will
: glone depend on the precision of the coefficient 00367, which
_ is the number arrived at by Regnault and Magnus for the
« &xpansion of air acter a constant pressure; and this is one of
e will now examine os relation edie between tempera-
tures and wave-lengths. I have computed two tables; the first
- gives the velocities of sound and the wave- engi ol the note
ER, corresponding to temperatures between 0° ©. and 2, 000°
.; the second those corresponding to temperatures between
0% C. and —272°48° C.
; Memperature. Velocity. | Wave-length. || Temperature. Velocity. pepsin
0° C. “ ] 1
333m 650 500 849°35 65
00 389°34 760 1600 872-96 1°705
200 8°53 “856 1700 895°97 1-748
300 a7 "942 1800 918-41 i
, 400 523°14 1-021 1900 940°26 pe
. 500 560°7 ‘095 2000 9610 je
. 600 596°03 164 Oe “650
ft 100 4 "228 — 50 | 300-86 587
<9 008 at “349 —150 93°14 43
"1100 747-38 1°458 : 186
te wn —250 95°60
_ 1200 T1419 1-512 ea reds
_ 4300 799-96 aie
_ 1400 82494 611
Wave-lengths and Velocities of sound in Gases, 429
_ These related numbers I have projected into the accompany-
‘Ing curve, whose abscissas are the temperatures, and whose
ordinates are the wave-lengths. This curve, which is the graph-
3383/1 us = is evidently a parabola,
ical expression of y=
since it has the form y?=aa,; and y will equal 0 when « has
receded to the point on the axis of abscissas equal to —272-48°
- Which is “the absolute zero” of temperature
It is evident that this same curve will give the numerical
relations between temperatures and the wave-lengths of any
note, or the velocities of sound in any gas, by merely giving dif-
ent numerical values to the divisions on the axis of ordi-
nates
It only remains to give the simplest formula for determining
the temperature of the furnace in terms of the observed dis-
lacements of the resonator serrations, and of the known num-
r of wave-lengths in the furnace-tube at the temperature 4
Let t= temp. C. of the air in and around the organ-pipe.
v= eines “the furnace-tube.
v= velocity of sound at temp. ¢
v’ = “b rz “ v.
¢= number of wave-lengths in furnace-tube at temp. @
d= observed displacement of resonator serrations by an
elevation of temperature
Then 7—d will equal the number of wave-lengths in the fur-
nace-tube (allowance made for elongation of tube by heat) at
the temp. ¢’. As the velocity of sound in the furnace-tube will
be inversely as the number of wave-lengths it contains, it fol-
lows that |
ek
v':vii:l:l—d; hence v is but
(1) v=333/1+ 008674, and
(2) v'=838/1+ 003677, hence
(8): wt. 3334/14 00367"
Reducing equation (8) we obtain
ed vl 9 ings
4) t=(syqg aca) ~ 27248:
which gives ¢ in terms of v, / and d. Combining equations (1)
and (8) we obtain
(6) ¢
which gives ¢’ in terms of J, d and ¢. But as v has to be calcu-
_ 972-48 (21—d) d+u
ie a ;
—
4380 L. M. Rutherfurd—Stability of the Collodion film.
lated in order to obtain / in equation (5), it follows that equa-
tion (4) is the simpler and the more readily worked numeri-
call
y: ,
If we call T the absolute temperature centigrade, then
T=?’ +272°48, and equation (4) becomes(6)T= Care. in
which equation the origin of codrdinates is at the vertex of the
latter to the manometric capsule, so that the rarefied air in the
hot tube cannot enter the tubing outside of the furnace. If
the serrations of the manometric flames are too dim to be
readily observed, they can be rendered distinctly visible, eve?
in broad day-light, by the use of “carbonized ” gas, or by sifting
into them the fine scrapings of lead pencil. In ascertaining the
number of displacements produced by any temperature, the
furnace-tube is slowly moved into the furnace, so that the
October 12, 1872.
=
Art. L.—On the stability of the Collodion Film; by LEwIs M.
RUTHERFURD. ;
THE very numerous and concordant micrometric measures of
direction
th the utmost
when applied to a a of glass properly albumenized.
LL. M. Rutherfurd—Stability of the Collodion film. 481
aging about thirty-four stars on each plate; also upon many
plates of the group about 4 Orionis; also upon many plates of
the group surrounding 41 Bodtis; also of the group surround-
ing 4 Cassiopea.
In addition to the measures of the position and distance of
the members of the several groups mentioned, very many meas-
ures have been made upon long lines of star images, at inter-
vals of one second of time from each other, for the purpose of
determining the angular value of any given portion of the
plates. Very many measures have been made for the same
purpose upon selected star pairs, and the results of these meas-
ures compared with the results of transits of stars over dia-
mond lines drawn upon a plate of glass placed in the photo-
graphic plate-holder at the photographie focus,—and finally
many measures have been made upon star groups taken on the
preceding, central and following regions of the plates for the
purpose of detecting the character and amount of the distor-
tion, if any, of the images.
The results of all these measures were so concordant as to
plates and upon one not albumenized respectively, a shrinkage
to the following fractions of the whole space measured: in No.
1, sis, No. 2, g}z, No. 8, ya's, No. 4 ar's3- \
were measures of the same plate, but in directions perpendicu-
_ lar to each other. No. 4 was on a plate not albumenized:
xpe-
n for
examination, and for that purpose the following measures were
made upon plates, albumenized before the application of the
collodion, first when leaving the camera and quite wet, and sec-:
ond when they had become dry; some of the plates were neg-
432 L. M. Rutherfurd—sStability of the Collodion film.
i
The plates were made and the measures conducted by Mr.
Chapman, my assistant, who is an accomplished photographer
and familiar with the use of the micrometer. The plates were
left clamped upon the stage of the micrometer during the inter-
val between the measures wet and dry, and both these meas-
ures were consequently made on the same parts of the screw.
In every case five bisections of each of the two lines were
made, and the difference between the means of these readings
nine measures is Rey. 00017, which is 57,355 of an inch; it
due to the cooling of the glass plate, by the evaporation whic
takes place the moment the wet plate is taken from
holder and exposed to the air under the micrometer. This
excess of distance (Rev. 00017), would be caused by an merease
of temperature for the dry glass of about 4° F.
This consideration reveals a source of error in the use of wet
plates which I have not hitherto considered, since the same
objection to the method used by Mr. Paschen, as I ae
it, is that instead of being confined to an investigation
a comparison of the actual state of the plate when dry, whan
ought to have been had all the adjustments, manipulations 4”
instruments been perfect.
Note on Aventurine Orthoclase. 4838
PuaTEe No, 1. PLATE No. 2.
June 27, 1870. Therm. 74°. | June 27, 1870. Therm, 74°.
Wei. Wet.
Line No. 1, Line No.2. Line No.1. ° Line No. 2.
165-5500 72°1175 164°3275 71°9350
“5470 1125 3325 “9450
"5525 "1225 "3250 "9300
"B5T5 “1275 "3350 “9370
"5540 "1240 “3275 ‘9475
165°5522 72°1208 164°3295 71-9388
72-1208 71-9388
93°4314 92°3907
+10 Therm. Cor. +10 Therm. Cor.
93-4324 92°3917
: Dry. Therm. 72°, Dry. Therm. 72°.
165-1125 716850 163°9075 715100
"1150 “6880 “9000 50
1175 6890 9100 00
1175 "6850 9025 50
1125 6860 50
165-1150 71°6866 163-9045 71°5130
71-6866 . 715130
93°4284 92-3915
+7 Therm. Cor, + Therm. Cor.
93°4291 Dry —R.0-0033 923922 Dry + R.0°0005
Plate No. 1. June 27. Therm. 74° and 72° Dry—R. 0-0033
ae a. % re ns “ 74° and 72° “ +R. 0°0005
“ No.3 July 3. “ 82° and 83° “ +R. 0°0004
SNe Se “« 84° and 85° “* +R. 0:0007
ee i “ot ona wa 6 64. 0-009
NG. 6 we BS ge" and 80" “ ER, 00092
= Nog: 10-98 wae bo" = eR. 0°0059
ae “ eee oe. . O'0040
> Na: 8. gee: “ 84° and 82° “ +R. 0:0089
Mean excess of Dry, R. 0°0017=y¢4z, of an inch.
Arr. LL—Note upon Aventurine Orthoclase, found at the Ogden
Mine, Sparta Township, Sussex Oo., N. J.; by Prof. Lexps.
Antone the masses of gneiss rock thrown out in sinking one
of the oat of the Ogden mine, I found, during the course of
€ past summer, ia panes of ve bE. pagp ad
which appears hith ve esca The three
cleavages O, i- and Le, rl ee obtained, par ford the cleav-
age a of orthoclase. The ety thin plates, which may be
procured by slicing the stone in the direction of the principal
-
434 E.. W. Hilgard—Soil Analyses and their Utility.
cleavage, are of considerable size, and furnish excellent speci
mens for microscopic examination.
The color of the orthoclase is a delicate flesh-red, which color
is due entirely to the imbedded crystalline scales of what has
en supposed to be géthite. The stone itself is translucent .
and quite colorless. The results obtained in two analyses were:
ie 2. Mean.
Silica, 64°80 64°82 64°81
Alumina, 19°02 19°25 19°02
Ferric oxide, 0°23 } 0°23
Lime, 1:29 1°23 1°26
Magnesia, 0°61 0°58 0°59
Potash, 15°22 13°38 14.30
Ign., 26 0°26 0°26
100°47
In an analysis of an aventurine oligoclase from Tvedestrand in
Norway, Scheerer obtained SiO, 61°30, Al,O, 23°77, Fes
O, 0°36, CaO 4-78, Na,O 850, K,O 1:29. In this the per
cent of géthite is somewhat greater than in the New Jersey
orthoclase, but in both cases the extremely small amount. of
foreign matter which suffices to impart the brilliant aventurine
character to the feldspar is remarkable. It is worth noting 10
this connection that all the specimens of sunstone from Kennett,
ester Co., Pa., in the cabinet of the Stevens Institute, are
oligoclase, not orthoclase.
amo
Art. LIL—On Soil Analyses and their Utility; by Eve. W.
HrLearp, State Geologist of Mississippi.
(Read at the Dubuque Meeting of the Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., August, 1872.)
secured for myself and my co-laborers the compassionate sym-
E. W. Hilgard—Soil Analyses and their Utility. 435
“ee of true believers. While I consider the work far from
elng as complete as it should be, and for that as well as other
Teasons its publication in detail may be delayed for some time ;
- I think what can now be said of sufficient importance to
; d rom such knowledge of soils as analysis may
impart, would seem, to many, disproportioned to the expendi-
ture involved. very modest we are, truly, when a purely
ford; apart from the important general inferences which may
fairly be ex
436 FE. W. Hilgard—Soil Analyses and their Utility.
soils, if we abandon as hopeless the determination of their
chemical character? Are the proofs that have been brought
against the utility of soil analyses really of such a character as
to justify so grave an omission? an omission, too, which in
many cases cannot hereafter be supplied. ven in the com-
paratively youthful State of Mississippi, I have found diff-
ni in obtaining reliable specimens of some soils, whose great
productiveness had led to their cultivation by the earliest set-
tlers, over the entire area of their occurrence. eae
I question the propriety of this omission, and the justice of
the testimonium paupertatis thus inflicted upon agricultural and
analytical chemistry.
To define my position, I premise that-—
1. I fully agree with Prof. Johnson as to the comparative use-
lessness of a single analysis giving the percentages of soil ingre-
dients found, zn ordinary cases. It is only when such analysis
demonstrates the great abundance, or very great deficiency, of one
or several primarily important ingredients, that, by itself, it con-
veys information of considerable practical importance. Note,
bbe such cases are not altogether infrequent, even in virgin
soils.
2. I agree that an “average soil” is a non ens, except as
referred, comparatively, to a particular set of soils closely related
in their origin. ‘
3. Also, that the claim of being able to detect the minute
differences caused by cropping without return to the sou, 18
i Hi the power of our present ana
re
4. I farther admit that, ordinarily, the analysis of soils long
cultivated, and treated with manures, can give but little and very
soil; from the great difficulty, if not impossibility, of obtaining
fair representative specimens.
urthermore, that to designate soils by the names of the
Cretaceous, Carboniferous or Silurian strata they may happen 10
overlie, is very loose practice; since in most cases they are
derived from Quaternary deposits, which may or may not have
_ On the contrary I demur, in the first place, to the broad
assertion that “it is practically impossible to obtain average
as inapplicable to a very large class,
ially of virgin soils, covering large areas with a uniformity
. : rocesses. ~
_ The Hepeeneeot this exception is not, it is true, very
EF. W. Filgard—Soil Analyses and their Utility. 437
4388 #. W. Hilgard—Soil Analyses and their Utility.
their having obviously been taken at an improper lone
e. g., near a foot-path, by the side of a fence, on a partially
denuded hillside or ravine, in the bed of a run, at the foot
of a tree, ete.
e question of depth must, in my view, be left to be deter-
mined by the circumstances of each case, except in so far as
the extreme depth to which tillage may cause the roots of crops
to reach, must be within the limits of the samples taken. Of
these, one should ordinarily represent what, under the usual
practice of tillage, becomes the arable soil; another, the sub-
soil not usually broken into; a third will in most cases be use-
to show what materials would be reached were the land to
From the fact that the atmospheric surface water must, in
its course, inevitably have a tendency to bring about such
agreem
Such I find to be very decidedly the case; so much so, that
habitually look to the former as the most reliable index, of &
soil’s distinctive character. To this there can be no legitimey
objection, when, as in all the upland soils now under consi
eration, the surface soil is directly derived from the su me
and its depth is less than thorough culture would give to 3°
arable soil.
EF. W. Hilgard—Soil Analyses and their Utility. 439
As regards the analysis itself, I premise that I have always
found even the most ‘chemically pure” reagents so y
necessary to reject, as arule, even the purest, after keeping it
for a few weeks in a glass bottle. The same is true, an
uniform strength, and precipitating all riche muah precipitates
Vv ‘
As regards Dr. Peter’s failure to determine the amounts of
soluble silex, nitric acid, ammonia, chlorine, and the degree of
oxidation of the iron, I agree that the former is desirable, not
becomes manifest ; as might, indeed, have been foreseen. —
As regards nitric id the consideration suggested by Prof.
Johnson himself, viz, that its quantity must be exceedingl
Variable, within short peri in one and the same so
Seems to me a sufficient dispensation from the laborious
etermination. 2
The same holds good, in a measure, for ammonia. Its quan-
440 3 E. W. Hilgard—Soil Analyses and their Utility.
tity varies continually in the soil, as it does in the atmosphere;
its chief absorbers in the soil are “humus” and clay. Where
these prevail largely, ammonia can scarcely be deficient as a
nutritive ingredient to an injurious extent; albeit, more might
doubtless be beneficially added. Moreover, the characteristic
effects of ammonia on vegetation are sufficiently obvious (in
“running to weed”) to render its determination in virgin soils,
laborious and even uncertain as it is, a matter of comparatively
little practical consequence, however great might be its theo-
retical interest. ‘
s for the determination of the degree of oxidation of iron,
I confess I fail to see its practical bearing. When ferric oxide
is present, plants surely can have no difficulty in reducing the
modicum they need to a soluble condition. When ferrous oxide
exists to any great extent, it indicates a want of drainage, and
manifests itself both in the color of the soil and in the poison-
ous effect on vegetation. But farmers surely do not need the
aid of chemical analysis to tell them that their soil needs
drainage and aération! A determination made to-day would
be of no value to-morrow, if the soil had been plowed in the
interval.
Finally, Dr. Peter does determine chlorine, in the treatment of
i n int
shows, so little likely to be deficient in the soil, that 1
omission would not be a serious practical objection.
A much graver defect is the failure to determine separately
the organic matter (“humus”) and the chemically combined
minations in question can be effected even approxima”
That they should form part of every soil analysis, 1s obvious,
I have attempted to obtain a reliable scale of the different
d s of “heaviness” of soils, from the determination of 2
maximum absorption of h pic moisture at ordinary to
peratures. about - a
+21°, the amount of aqueous vapor absorbed by a thin layet
of soil exposed to yh
E. W. Hilgard—Soit Analyses and their Utility. 441
Very pars RE ewiivecwe 1°5 to e: bs per: cent,
MORI BOBS sian i 5°0 to
Clay De very heavy, .--....,.12°0 to 1 :
there being, of were all serie grades of hygroscopic
power, as we of ‘heay t appears that for this
mterval of ‘eepenibens: the peomaiarte of absolute absorbing
power in the soil, resulting from the rise of temperature, is
just balanced by the increased amount of vapor diffused in
the air—not an unimportant circumstance, with regard to
vegetable life.
There are, however, two soil ingredients which interfere
seriously with the correctness of the estimate as to Pama
erived from the coefficient of absorption, viz., “humus” an
Jerric oxide. Both of these are highly hygroscopic, ye both
counteract the ‘‘ heaviness” caused by excess of clay. Moreover,
there is a class of soils (viz, fine siliceous silts) whose exceeding
“heaviness” in cultivation is much complained of, yet whose
absorbent — is very sm
When, as in the majority ree cases, the surface soil has none
tm derived from the subsoil, the disturbing effect of the
umus” may be sensibly eliminated by comparing, not the
soils, fee the subsoils, in this respect.* As to the ferric oxide,
there are among about 200 Mississippi soils analysed but three
or four whose agricultural qualities would have been seriously
- earaame cates by a reliance upon the coefficient of absorption
a
But I do not for a moment admit, that in a material so com-
= both in its composition and mode of action any one or
_ data, whether chemical, — or ec mango may be
e soil: or, as Prof. Johnson ex-
orate it, ‘to do violence to agriculture.” So far from this,
consider that a proper interpretation of the analytical veal
must take into ee not only all the chemical an
physical facts observed on the specimen, but all that has been
or can be observed in loco—the location, _ a
relations to drainage, ete. ; as well as all that i s known co
a earches ssippi, ra sixteen years past.
C early, the oie Ai pets : Prof Johnson’s position and
mine is one of degree only ; yet this difference is not a slight
* In such cases, the surface soil is always more sandy than the subsoil.
Am. Jour. oo se Vou. 1V, No. 24—Drc., 1872. -
449 E. W. Hilgard—Soil Analyses and their Utility.
one, since while, as before remarked, I have made, or caused to
e made, some 200 analyses of soils and subsoils, his classic
works on the growth and nutrition of plants do not contain so
much as a tabular exemplification of the composition of various
soils, as resulting from chemical analysis. If, then, ‘ the prob-
abilities of its uselessness in direct application to practice are so
great,” as Prof. Johnson seems to hold, I have committed a
grievous error, and squandered the substance of the State.
I think that the considerations already adduced should plead
measurably in extenuation of my course. But I will now state
succinctly what services, in my view, soil analyses may fairly
claim to be capable of performing, when conducted substantially
in the manner, to the extent, and under the conditions defined
more powerful, or at least more energetic, solvents; and that,
therefore, a determination of those ingredients which may
hen, however, a partial solvent of uniform strength is used
in all cases alike, and its action continued for the same length
of time, it may fairly be presumed that, as between souls of
in
? *
measure, proportional to the amounts of available nutriment
and the experience of cultivators as to the productiveness 4
soils ; wii provided, tha
E. W. Hilgard—Soil Analyses and their Utility. 443
The ahs is important; but that with a proper local
knowledge these allowances can be made, and that in most
takes the hair off the feet of cattle. Ergo, every “sticky” clay
soil in the State is called, considered, and treated as a “prairie”
soil, especially if the hardened clods adhering above the hoofs
of cattle should carry the hair with them. If such soil is un-
thrifty, and rusts eotton, it is because “ there is too much lime
in it,” which “scalds” the seedlings. In matter of fact, most
of these soils are notably deficient in lime, so as to
directly and immediately benefited by its application wherever
mera ; : a
here acts, probably, as much chemically as physically ; the clay
bei ts A Phile the physical
defects of these soils are doubtless the main cause of the crop
failures, yet analysis has suggested a remedy which relieves,
for the time being, from the necessity of the more costly im-
‘provements; lime being comparatively easy of access.
Analogous cases are far from infrequent, both in this and in
the adjoining States; and I have been led to attach special im
portance to the determination of time in soils, from the (not
unexpected) rule which seems to hold good very generally,
viz., that, f ribus, the thriftiness of a soil is sensibly
dependent upon the amount of lime it contains ; while, at the
same time, in the usual mode of culture without return to the
soil, the duration of fertility is correspondingly diminished,
and its cessation is very abrupt wherever much lime is present.
It may be said that, after all, this is but what, from data
already Saws might have been expected. Granted ; then,
@ fortiori, soil analysis, involving the determination of lime,
* See, for example, the article “Heavy Flatwoods Soil,” in my Miss. Rep. _
1860, pp. 276, 279.
Va A
444 E. W. Eilgard—Soil Analyses and their Utility.
is of considerable use in determining the present and future
value of soils.
In speaking of the “ amount” of lime, I must be understood
to refer, not so much to its absolute percentage, as to its _—
tity in comparison with that of potash, which, with phosphori
acid, is what all our fertilizers chiefly aim to supply. Their
determination must, of course, be considered of prime import
ance, since their absence or extreme scarcity is fatal to profitable
fertility ; while, when they are present, even though imme-
diately available for absorption to a slight extent only, we
possess in lime, ammonia, etc, and the fallow, ready and
powerful means for correcting their chemical condition.
to Liebig’s testimony, ordinarily be-capable of profitable
culture.
Again, it is well known that the same species of plants may
occupy soils of widely different quality and value. True, an
attentive observer will in such cases see differences in the mode
of development ;* yet these are often such as to escape ordinary
remark, and grievous disappointments frequently arise “i
eee a ae
fiat eee ce OR he a er
J. C. Draper—Heat produced in the Body, ete. 445
of late been customarily treated, is the more to be regretted
as no probable amount of private effort can accomplish what
must, of necessity, be done on an extended scale and with the
aericultaral volaies must and will take up and continue, as
far as possible, the investigation of the agricultural pemnsiatiilas
of each State; but the special and local experience acquired
by those conducting a field survey, as well as their oppor-
tunities for extensive and comparative duerrtion: are unfor-
tunately “not transferable,” even to the finest, quarto report.
In order to attain their highest degree of usefulness, our agri-
cultural colleges should teach, not merely general principles,
together with a sufficiency of the handicrait of a i re; but
they should be enabled to point out to each student, ‘with
reference to his particular neighborhood, How Crops Grow,
and How Crops
Univ. of Miss., at 1872.
Art. LIIL.—The Heat produced in the Body, and the effects of
Exposure to Cold ; by JouN C. Draper, M.D.
Tux following results were obtained in an attempt to deter-
mine the quantity of heat passing off from the surface of the
oe by —— ow much it would elevate the waspersis
a known mass of cool water during a given period of
The manner of experimenting was as follows :—Seven and a
half cubic feet of cool water were drawn into a bath, and the
temperature taken after careful mixing. The bath was then
covered over for about four-fifths of its extent to prevent the
action of currents of air, and at the close of an hour the tem-
perature was again tested. The rise of $ a degree represented
the amount of heat absorbed from the air during one hour, and
was deducted as a normal error from the lts afterward
obtained.
During the time occupied in determining the normal error of
ce bath ( (viz., one hour wie I ao on a sofa to bring the circula-
ry and respira’ ns into a condition similar, as
pda of the ee Bares to that to which they onl be submitted
446 J.C. Draper—Heat produced in the Body,
while in the bath. My dress during this phase of the experi-
ment consisted of a thin flannel summer undershirt, lnen
drawers, and cotton socks. At the completion of the hour of
rest these were removed with as little exertion as possible and
I stepped into the bath, and lay down, allowing only the head
to project above the surface of the fluid. At the close of an
hour the temperature of the bath was again taken. I then left
it, and drying the surface of the body, reassumed the same
dress and lay down on the sofa. Throughout the whole of
each experiment, the temperature of the air, the dew point, the
temperature of the bath, of the armpit, mouth and temple were
‘taken, together with the rate of respiration and of the pulse.
Since in these experiments two series of phenomena are
investigated, I have for the sake of clearness of description
separated the results in accordance with the phenomena 1D
question, and direct attention first to the
Quantity of heat evolved from the body.
During Rest. Motion
ist Exper 2d Exper. 3d
July 4 July 5 July 11
Temp. of air, -.-. 90° F 4° FB, ae
Wet bulb thermometer, - -_---- 78° F. 76° F. 74°F.
Experiment commenced at --.. 11.45 a.m. 12.10 p.m, 11.50 A.M
Temp. of water when drawn,--_ 734° F. 734° F, 75° F.
Temp. of water at the end of) — . 53°F.
‘ an hour on entering the bath, 2 eae ee
emp. of water at the close of ‘ : oo F.
an hour on leaving the bath, 764° F. 764° F. 7
2° ¥. q° Be 2 es
d rror,
‘Volume of water in the bath, 74 cubic feet.
Volume of the : 3 ee
Weight of the body, 180 Ibs.
Height of the body, 5 feet 54 inches.
In the first and second experiments I laid perfectly still ; the
results therefore show the quantity of heat passing off from
the surface of the body in a state of rest. This, as the table
ps Sas in one hour. The volume of the body being three
cubic feet, it follows that if we consider the specific heat of the
ody itself about five degrees of Fahrenheit’s scale. The con-
verse of this may also be considered as true, viz., that after
th, the air being at 78°, enough heat is lost in the course of |
an hour to cool the body five degrees, at least during the first
hour, It is therefore a fact of considerable importance from 4
and effects of Eaposure to Cold. 447
medico-legal point of view, especially in estimating the time a
body has been immersed in water after recent drowning when
the temperature of the water is about 78°, as is the case with
the Croton and other streams in summer.
In the third experiment one or other of the lower extremities
was alternately kept in motion during thirty minutes of the
hour in which the body was immersed in the bath. The move-
ment consisted in extending and flexing the leg on the thigh at
the rate of fifty flexions per minute, and being performed under
the surface of water involved considerable muscular exertion.
The physiological effects of the cold bath on the body.
Experiment of July 4,—Rest— Temp. of Bath 74° F.
I i 4 5 6
Temp. be-; Immed. jAfter 1 hour; Immed. |One hourjTwo hours
fore enter-|afterenter-jin the bath &/after leay-/after leav-\after leay~
ing the ing the | just before | ing the ing the ing the
aot fama bath, bath. leaving it. bath, bath. bath.
Temp. of the mouth 99°F.| 99°F.| 98°F. | 97°R.| 97°F.) —
. armpit} 96°F.| 97°F] 95°F. 92°F. | 96°F. —
“ temple,| 96° F. en on — 94° F.
te of respiration, | 20 22 16 13 16 19
Rate of pulse, 14 13 65 54 60 12
Note.—A. chill or shock was experienced on entering the bath,
and the sensation of coolness remained ile in the water.
Perspiration set in and skin became cool two hours and a hal:
r coming out. Shortly after leaving the bath slept for 30
nutes.
.
mi
Experiment of July 5,—Rest—Temp. of Bath 14° F.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Immed. }After 1 hour
i ah Revs Ea ny wld ie ten fat rot
| elk ore T ee ier ee, ing bath.
Temp. of mouth, or. | 99°F.| 98°F. 97°F. | 97°F. } 98°F.
“© armpit, 98°F. | 97°F. | 94°F. 94°F.| 97°F. | 97°F.
« . temple, ret 95°F. 95° F. 96° F. 96°F
ate of respiration, | 17 21 18 5 1 6
18 64 55 56 60
Note.—Symptoms same as in experiment 1, but not as well
marked; slept 30 minutes as in preceding.
_If in the tables we compare column 1, representing the con-
dition before entering the bath, with column 4, representing the
448 J. C. Draper—Heat produced in the Body,
condition immediately after leaving it, we find that in both
experiments the exposure for one hour to water at a tempera-
ture of about 74° F. lowered the temperature of the mouth
of a degree of cold such as that employed, is to reduce the
temperature of the body and the rate of respiration slightly,
while it affects the rate of pulsation in a very profound
manner.
One of the consequences of this effect of cold on the action
of the heart was a great reduction in the quantity of oxygen
introduced into the system. The rate of pulsation —
reduced nearly one-third, the quantity of oxygen convey
into the interior of the body was diminished in a somewhat
similar ratio. In a short time this began to exert its influence
on the nervous centers, and there was a overwhelming disposl-
tion to fall asleep, which was unconsciously indulged in in both
experiments shortly after leaving the bath, notwithstanding the
strong desire to keep awake for the purpose of recording the
rates of pulse and respiration at given periods.
Another evident consequence of such a sluggish movement
of the blood is the disposition to congestion of various mterna
organs, and herein we may see a partial explanation of the
action of cold in causing inflammations, especially of those
organs engaged in the processes of secretion and excretion.
e discussion of the results obtained has thus far been con-
metric indications. In the case of the respiratory movements
it is also very difficult to avoid influencing them in the act 0
co g th temperatures are, it is true, free from
minations none of these objections can be urged; they are.con:
siderable, and by counting for half a minute for every reco
e, the error is reduced to a maximum of one beat. The
movements of the heart are, in addition, free from the liability
to error that exists in the case of the respiratory movements. j
ecepting the pulse determinations as being accurate am
Recollecting that
and 3 that just
and effects of Exposure to Cold. 449
just before leaving the bath, with 4, the condition just after
leaving it, we find that the rate of the pulse has dimin-
ished eleven beats in the first and nine in the second ex-
f those organs by increasing the work they are obliged to per-
form, and raising the pulse-respiration ratio to that actually
so a tendency to congestion of various internal organs, espe-
piration
College of the City of New York, Oct., 1872.
450 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Limestone, etc.,
Art. LIV.—On the Quartzite, Iimestone and associated rocks of
the vicinity of Great Barrington, Berkshire Co., Mass. ; by
James D. Dana.
(Continued from page 370.)
3. Stratification.
(a.) Monument Mountain, and the Housatonic Valley adjoining
ut on the west.
Monument Mountain has a precipice of hard quartzite on Its
eastern front,* and a wall of the same rock along the sides
facing southwest and west, while through the interior the rock
is mica schist and gneiss.
of these joints have gin a north-and-south direction
mountain near its southwestern side.
2
Mount re and the Taconic range to the southwest, and, nearer
_ beautiful valley of the Housatonic, with its lakes and villages. i ae
+ ae ee oe a Oe ee are compass courses. The variation
_ Barrington region is about 8}° W., which would make N. 10° E, compass cous?
_ correspond to . 14° E. true course. 2
in the vicinity of Great Barrington, Mass. 451
H is the position of the Housatonic river, and a little south
of the line of the section is the village of Housatonic. Near
q?(pon the map) passes the road, first northeastward, then
northward, to Stockbridge. As shown, there are in Monument
Mountain two strata of quartzite, q', g%, with two of schist,
(mica schist and gneiss) s', s*, all dipping southeasterly, the
average slope 25°.
_ The thickness of the upper quartzite of Monument Mountain
1s 200 or 250 feet; that of the schist under it at least 500 feet;
and that of the lower quartzite about 250 feet.
The schist (s*) over the interior of Monument Mountain varies
much in strike and dip, as is common in beds that are little
inclined. The dip is for the most part to the east of south-
east 20° to 25°, the strike being about N. 25° K. Just west
of the eastern quartzite the amount of dip varied from 15° to
25°, and the direction was generally that just stated: yet in
Some places the strike was N. 50° W. an 70° W. At the
There is no good outcrop of the lower schist (s') at the west
end of Monument Mountain east of the Housatonic river; but
the smooth surface of the foot hills or slopes in that part,
and the sudden transition from numberless quartzite :
ments to occasional masses of gneiss which is found on the
descent of this side of the mountain, are evidence of its
existence. Besides this, the stratum of schist is well exhib-
i
as
farther west there is a bold ridge of quartzite, which is
evidently the western side of the fold of the quartzite (¢’).
A narrow depression or valley intervenes between the schist
and this quartzite, so that the actual superposition of the
former was not visible; but the dip of the schist was not only
_ toward the quartzite on the east (as shown in the section), but
also on the west of it in the Williamsville valley; and hence
the quartzite is the course of a shallow synclinal. The
quartzite was of the hard jointed kind, indistinct in its bedding.
At one place I observed a westward dip of 20°—the strike
N. 20° W.—in diyisional planes which appeared to be those
of the bedding.
452 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Limestone, etc.,
The following section of Monument Mountain (fig. 2) rep*
resents the stratification along a line half a mile north of that
of the first (fig. 1).
Bo ym sn eS Slstor ty "805 * es ao abe
Se see 8 g
Section across Housatonic Valley and Monument Mountain.
On the west, it passes the Housatonic river, near an old dis-
mantled iron furnace, (/, on map), about three-fourths of a mile
north of Housatonic village. On the eas?, it comes out in front
VS
¢g si
falls gradually in height, be gree with the southeasterly
dip of the strata. The schist of the interior of the mountain
here passes through to the east face, beneath the bed o
quartzite is just above the level of the hard bedless qanreee
and about a hundred yards to the east of it, at a point meee
ff of
the bluff. It lies conformably beneath the schist ; the dip st
the quartzite is 15° to.20°, the strike N. 25° E., and the dip °
the schist above and a little farther east 25°, with the same
strike. The depression on the east side of the hard weste™
os
petit the ees becomes a mere path (at |
right of the path, a little distance from it.
wm the wrieinity of Great Barrington, Mass. 453
’ )
from the hard jointed to the softer bedded kind.
Traces of similar bedding, and of like softness in the rock
where bedded, occur at the northern margin of the eastern crest
of quartzite, along the path descending northward; also in
some places near the hard quartzite of the southwestern wall,
where, at places, I passed isolated masses of great size undergoing
deep disintegration, that bore evidences of the great amount of
degradation which had taken place around them.
Descending the western slope, toward the Housatonic river
and village, the quartzite is passed; and then a.region of schist,
indicated (as stated above) by a sudden substitution over the
slopes of loose masses of schist in place of quartzite; and,
finally, within less than a hundred feet of the base, on the path
leading northwestward toward the old furnace, there is an
to 80 feet, is probably due to the abrupt change in the rock
ind
drift, so that the thickness of the schist was not ascertained ; it
oy, does not exceed 50 feet. The limestone is the true
tockbridge limestone.
_ the same low anticlinal is here apparent that is represented
m figure 1; and it is further evident that the anticlinal has an
inclined axis dipping southward, inasmuch as the limestone,
an inferior stratum in the fold, is exposed on going north,
while covered to the south.
€ mica schist of the interior of ee lpr ga tn
part of the gneiss layers, decom rapidly and deeply, and by
this means peer of the sinew ane phy overs ath earth,
which is partly clayey.
country adjoining on the west, south, and east.
[To be continued] _
454 R. Ridgway—Relation between Color and
tT. LV.—On the relation between Color and Geographical Dis-
tribution in Birds, as exhibited in Melanism and Hyperchrom-
ism; by RoBERT Rip@way. ;
THE two chief modifications of color experienced in the sev-
eral geographical, or climatic, regions of the North American
continent, by certain species of birds which are resident over a
very extended area, are the following :—I. A melanistic tendency,
which may be either an increase in the intensity of color or in
the extent, of the black parts of the plumage; and Ik A greater
brightness, or an increased prevalence, of the three primary colors,
red, blue, and yellow. “hie
These features are mainly noticeable as the result of a ee
i 1a.die
increasing as we trace a species southward. j
These generalizations may be best illustrated by presenting
the following especially noteworthy cases: 3
IL Melanism triking example in illustration of this law
is found in Chrysomitris psaltria, under which we range as races,
. Arizone Coues, C. Mexicana Swains., and C Columbiana
Lafr. Specimens of this bird from the southern ortion of
the Western province of the United States (Rocky Mountains
to California, its northern limit being about the parallel of 40°),
have the black of the upper parts confined to the head, wings
and tail, the entire dorsal region being olive-green; this form
na, New Mexico, and the northern provinces of _—
(var. Arizone),t have this olive-green clouded, or mixed, wi
* CHRYSOMITRIS PSALTRIA Var. PSALTRIA. tthe
_ Fringilla psaltria Say, Long’s Exp., ii, 1823, 40.—Chrysomitris psaltria Bonap-
List, 1838.—Baird, B. N. Am., 1858, 422. :
Hab. Rocky Mts. and Middle province of U. S., north to about 40°.
+ CHRYSOMITRIS PSALTRIA var. ARIZONZ. : 366.—
‘Chrysomitris Mexicana var. Arizone Coues, P. A. N. 8, Philad., 1
Cooper, Orn. Cal., i, 1870,170.
Hab. ‘Southern border of U. 8., in New Mexico and Arizona.
Bo eee Ce eae
Pee ee
Geographical Distribution in Birds. 455
black, there being more of the latter color in the Mexican than
in the Arizonan specimens. By the time we reach the latitude
of Mirador and Micatlan, the black entirely replaces the olive-
green; the bird now is the var. Mexicana,* and continues with
nearly the same characteristics south to Costa Rica and Pan-
ama, from which latter countries we find specimens in which
the black is often appreciably more intense and lustrous than
*
in those from Mexico. These three forms all have white on
size. These equatoreal specimens (var. Columbiana)+ exhibit
ward, first through var. nigricapillus§ (Costa Rica and Panama),
and finally ending in var. nigriceps| (Ecuador), which has the
* CHRYSOMITRIS PSALTRIA var. MEXICANA.
Carduelis Mexicana Swains., Syn. Birds Mex., Phil. Mag., 1827, 435.—Chry-
somitris M. Bonap., Consp., 1850, 516.—Baird, B. N. Am., 1858, 423, pl.
iy, t 2:
Hab. Middle America (coast to coast), from Northern Mexico to Costa Rica.
+ Curysomrris PsALTRIA var. COLUMBIANA.
Chrysomitris Columbiana Lafr., Rev. Zool. 1843, 292.—Baird, B. N. Am.,
1858, 423.—Sclater, Catal., 1862, 124.
Hab. Bogota to Panama.
¢ Mytarcuus Lawrenctt var. LAWRENOT. :
Tyrannula Lawrencii Giraud, 16 sp. Texas Birds, 1841, pl. ii—Myiarchus L.
ird, B. N. A., 1858, 18.—Sclater, Cat. Am. B., 1862, 233.—Coues, P. A. N.
8., July, 1872.
Hab. Mexi
Myiarchus nigricapilus “ Cabanis, MS.,” Sclater, Cat. Am. B., 1862, 233.—M.
| Mytarcuvs LAWRENCI! var. NIGRICEPS.
Myiarchus nigriceps Sclater, P. Z. S., 1860, pp. 68, 295 (Ecuador).—Ib., Catal.
Am. B., 1862, 234.—Coues, P. A. N.S, July, 1872.
Hab. Panama to Ecuador.
456 R. Ridgway— Relation between Color and
crown deep black. Sayornis nigricans,* from California and
orthern Mexico, has the crissum pure white; Mirador speci-
tropical American examples (var. saaheh Costa Rica and
Ecuador), have it dark snuff-brown, while examples from Mira-
dor, Mexico, are as exactly intermediate in colors as they are in
itat.
The same law as s regards the Pacific province of North Amer-
ica is made evident by the well known cases of Picus villosus
var. Harrisii,t P. pubescens var. — wl Sphyropicus varus
var. ruber,f the Northwest coast forms of Falco peregrinus, F.
Columbarius, Bubo plat ates Scops ai and numerous other
similarly affected species
IL The law affecting the primary colors,—Of this class we may
begin with yellow, as being the color whose changes are most
nearly parallel with those of black, i. e., affected nearly simi-
larly in middle America and the ‘Pacific province of North
America. The following cases afford illustrations:—Xan-
thoura luxcuosa** from the Rio Grande of Texas and Northern
Mexico, has the lower Sale deep green, while the same species
from Guatemala (var. Guatemalensis),++ is pure gamboge yellow
* SAYORNIS NIGRICANS,
nigricans Swains., Phil. Mag., 1827, —Sayornis n. Bonap..
Compt. Hager 657. “Baird, Be N.A., 1858, 183.5 Sel., Cat, "1862, 200.
Hab, California and Northern —
+ SAYORNIS NIGRICANS a AQUA’
is aquaticus Scl. and Salv., This, cose A aennscra
Hab. Central pay from Southern Mexi
} Picus vILLosus var. HARRISII.
Picus Hinwviantt hit, Orn. Biog., v, 1839, 191, pl. 417.—Baird, B. N. Am.
1858, 87.
ab. Western Province of N. Am., and south into a where it grades
into the smaller and still darker var. Jardini, which reaches its extreme
evn goa eon in —— —
| Prous pus
Picus Gairdnert hak: eee Bice, ie 1839, 317,—Baird., B. N. Am., 1858, 91.
Hab. Western Province. sp
bf 5 Swat omy VARIUS V:
rec ruber Gmel., 8. N, i 1788, 429.—Sphyropicus ruber Baird, B. N. A+
Hab. Pacific Province of N. —
** XANTHOURA LUXUOSA var. Li
- Garrulus luauosus Lees., R. Z., Z., April, 1839, 100. Xanthowra 1. Bonap., ConsP-
1850, cron oe B. x. Am., 1858, 589.
. Mexico, from the Rio Grande to Isth. Tehuantepec.
GUATEMALENSIS.
Geographical Distribution in Birds. 457
beneath, intervening localities producing specimens having a
mixture of green and yellow below—either color predominat-
inas,
characterized—will, perhaps, render the remarks which follow
it more lucid:
Synopsis of the species and their subordinate races of the genus
Geothlypis.
Throat yellow, Series I; Throat ashy, Series IT.
Serrss 1
A. Black “mask” extending backward beneath the eye, on to the
auriculars. Bill slender, the culmen nearly straight (as in Opor-
ornis),
Bill, from nostril, -30; tarsus, -70; wing, 2°25; tail,
2°15. Hab. Whole of the United States in summer; in
* MyIopIOCTES PUSILLUS Var. PUSILLUS. , oe
eee ee i a a
815. ird, B. N. Am., in s
Hab. Eastern Province and Rocky Mts. of N. Am.; eastern middle America
in winter.
+ MyYr1opI0cTES PUSILLUS var. PILEOLATA.
Motacilia pileolata Pallas, Z. R. As., i, 1831, 497.
‘yiodioctes pusilius var. pileolata Ridgway. .
¢ HeLMINTHOPHAGA CELATA var.
Hab Goast, from Radiak , Cape Ben ;
. Pacific to cas.
A ‘i iny upon the genus- Geothlypis, by Mr. Salvin,
very interesting paper upon gen > avila aoe i
tions are made, and theories suggested, which we may be able to corroborate by a
few additional facts bearing upon the relationship of the several species of
Am. Jour. Sct.—Turp Serigs, Vou. IV, No. 24.—Dec., 1872,
238
- 458 R. Ridgway—Relation between Color and
winter south through middle America to Chiriqui, and
throughout most of the West India eget
oe as.*
Abdomen yellow ; occiput nas ie Bill, ; tarsus,
90; wing, 2°50; tail, 2°50. Hab. Nass, “thand of
New Providence, Hehiuen: residen se
p.r
Abdomen bright fe ae hie: be ee tinged
to a ellow. Bill, "75; wing, 2°45 : ail,
Hab. Eastern Multec (Xalape 5.2%. sauna
2. G. speciosa. Crown black; abdomen ochraceous; bill
mio ie ack. Wing, 2°40; tail, 2°30. Lapel ee
Mex
ex spectosa.§
Abdomen Mei yellow; bill with the soar mandible
yellow Hab, Ecuador. fp. semifiava.|
3. G, mQuinocTrALis. Cro a dene a yellow
Black of the aivieiters Ane acy hosterionly by the olive-
green of the nape. Bill, 17 deep; bbe 2°50; tail,
2°35. Hab. Northeastern South America (Trinidad,
Guiana, Venezuela and New Granada).
aequinoctialis.4
Black of wet e auricular bordered polbersorly by the ash
of the
Forehead. narrow black. Bill, -14 deep; ; wing, 2°40;
ail, Hah Southern South Americ ca (Brazil,
Paraguay, Busnoe' Ayre oto). fl velaia®
Forehead Senda. black. Hab. Chiriqui.
y. Chiriquens is.tt
B. Black mask not extending beneath the eye, but confined a the
lores and a narrow frontlet. Bill thick, the culmen curved
(much as in Granate —
* GEOTHLYPIS
seed trichas Linn, Me x, i T66, 66, ! 293.— Geothiypis t. erage tau Hein., 1860,
16.—Baird, B. N. Am., 1858, 241; Rev. Am. B., 1864, 2
+ GEoTHLYPIS TRICHAS var ie
OCIOSA.
pis sperioen Sel, P P, Z.8, 1858, 447. (We are unable to describe these
re exactly, since we have not been able to see specimens;
while the the published cage degen lacking in sufficient details.)
| GzorHLYPIs SPECIOSA var. SEMIFLAVA.
Geothlypis semiftavus Sel, P. Z. 8. 1860, 273, 291.
{ GEOTHLYPIS AQUINOCTIALIS Var. EQUINOCTIALIS.
Slotacilla cequinoctiatis Gm, 8. N., (288, 972.—Geothlypis wg. Caban., Mus.
Hein., i, 1860, 16.—Baird, Rev. m. B, i, 1865, 224.
** GEOTHLYPIS
oh pecans
Sylvia velata Vieill., Ois. Aim, Sept, i "1807, 22, pl. Ixxiv.— Geothlypis
Gahan, Mus. Hein. 1.1866; 3 cto Am. By 1, 1865, 223.
UP sme QUINOCTIALIS Var er RIQUIENSIS. wegen
sir April, 1872. measurements
= acocipics) pril, 8 (No
ie Gee hh Sates —
Peg ni SCS AE ORS PP ae > ooh te aR an oe ere
Geographical Distribution in Birds. 459
4, G. POLIOCEPHALA. Lee bole, ash; maxille yellow.
Eyelids white; nape and a culars oliv ve-green ; ‘abdo-
men whitish. Bill, 30-715 fo: wing, 2°20; tail, 2°50.
Hab. Western Mexico (Mazatlan).
a. poliocephala,*
Eyelids black ; ; nape and auriculars ashy ; abdomen wholl
yellow. Bill, ‘35, 18 deep; wing, 2°40; tail, 2°50, Had.
Guatemala, and Costa Rica. B. caninucha.+
Series II.
5. G. Pamapetruia. Head and neck wholly ashy.
Eyeli usky; lores dusky, not in strong contrast
th the ; black centers of the feathers of the
ular region larger, or expanded, posteriorly, suf-
North America, south in winter (migrating across the
Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, without atin
by the way !) to Costa Rica, Panama and Bogota.
a. Philadelphia. t
Eyelids pure white; lores deep black in strong con-
trast with the ash; black centers of the feathers
of the gular and jugular region, not larger
teriorly, and showing no TB ovine to form a patch
on the jugulum. Tail 2°25 to 2°50. (Female distin-
| y
eyelids, and more dusky lores.) Hab. Western prov-
ince of North America, from British Columbia to
Costa Rica. fi. Macegiltivra i
In studying closely the affinities of the different forms
in the above synopsis, one of the most striking facts noticea is is
that all of the peculiarly southern species, except G. poliocephala,
have the belly wholly yellow; while the most northern species
(@. trichas), with the belly whitish in the northern form, has it
yellow in the two southern ones; two of the tropical American
species have also the belly whitish in their northern (G. polio-
cephala and G. speciosa) and Aba Seta in their sues races (@.
poliocephaia, var. coninucha, and G. speciosa var. semiflava).
These facts we consider as ian if not ak of a fropical
> GEOTHLYPIS POLIOCEPHALA var. POLIOCEPHALA.
Rev. nn i, 1865, 225.
+ GEoTHLYPIs POLIOCEPHALA
ten Pe W eb me 1810, 101, 1. xiv.— Geothlypis
ahaa Wi =
Philad. Baird Bs N. Am, 1968, 296: Rev. Am. B., 1865 5,
$ Guornize Prizaomin > why ag og ¥; 1839, 75 pl. 399. a
a , t ga
Paird, BON. Aaa, 1868, 494, gl. este Rev. Am. B., i, 1865, 227.
‘
460 J. LeConte— Formation of the
wholl ellow, and closely approach in characters also the
easy $ fad] American examples of var
e American exe :
the western form of this species has a longer tail than the east-
ern one, and white, instead of dusky, eyelids, so also has that
of G. Philadelphia (var. Macgillivray’). In the case of Myiar-
chus Lawrencit, before alluded to, it is noticed that the yellow
of the abdomen increases in richness, just at the same rate that
the blackish of the pileum does in intensity, as it approaches its
most southern extreme. ;
{To be continued. }
Meant
Art. LVL—A Theory of the Formation of the great Features of
the Earth's Surface; by Josepu LEContE, Prof. Geol. and
Nat. Hist. University of California.
[Concluded]
As already stated, every other theory fails to account for the
immense crushing together shown by plication and slaty cleav-
age. Many theories take cognizance of this crushing, but in all
it is a ec dinate accompaniment instead of the cause of the
elevation. Let us examine very briefly some of the more recent
theories, and show their inadequacy. ie
__* For a discussion of this law see Baird, in this Journs
vol. xli, March, 1866,
/
Features of the Earth's Surface. 461
miles wide, still the neigrs necessary would be enormous.
t
phenomena went on together pari passu; and, therefore, the
surface was never convex at all, but nearly or quite horizontal
all the time. Subsidence under such circumstances might pe
duce horizontal tension or stretching of the lower strata, but
could not produce horizontal crushing and plication of the
upper strata.
* “Some points in American Geology,” this Jour., May, 1861. ;
* Whitney: Mountain Building, p. 101. Hunt, American Geology, this Jour.,
May, 1861.
eee
#ee
462 J. LeConte—Formation of the
tal crushing together and folding of the strata, and an up-
swelling of the whole mass. Halland Hunt leave the sediments
just after the whole preparation has been made, but before the
actual mountain formation has taken place; and, therefore, In
the language of Dana, “it is a theory of mountains with the
mountains left out.” |
fe Be Ege thes
alae the elevation, would itself produce the plication ? Or
Oo ro
beyond : mast produced by horizontal thrust crushing
such as ridges, peaks, gorges, and, in fact, nearly all that con-
stitutes scenery, are produced by subsequent erosion.
I feel considerable confidence in the substantial trath of the
foregoing statement of the mode of formation of mountam
chains. As to the mode of formation of continents and sea bot-
be formed by a similar unequal yielding to horizontal thrust
and a similar crushing together and up-swelling. If 80, be
would be necessary to suppose the amount of horizontal yiela-
__ ing in this case much less, but the depth effected much greatel)
than in the case of mountain chains. But, as we find nour
_ * Mountain Building, &., p. 106.
‘
Features of the Earth’s Surface. 463
mistakable structural evidence of such crushing, except in the
case of mountain chains, I have preferred to attribute the for-
mation of continents and sea bottoms to unequal radial con-
traction.
I wish next to show that this theory of mountain chains
explains in a satisfactory manner not only the mountain eleva-
tion and the phenomenon of plication and slaty cleavage, but
also all the most conspicuous phenomena of mountain chains an
of igneous agencies. The satisfactory explanation of these
become, of course, strong evidence of the truth of the theory.
The further development of the theory will be best undertaken
in connection with the explanation of these phenomena.
(A.) Thick sediments of mountain chains. It is a well-known
fact, first brought prominently forward by Prof. Hall, that
mountain chains are composed of enormous masses of sediments.
This fact forms the basis of Hall’s sedimentary theory. Prof.
Whitney,* it is true, thinks that the sedimentary theorists have
mistaken cause for effect,—that thick sediments are not the
cause of mountains, but mountain chains are the cause of thick
sediments. He believes that a granite axis upheaved out of
the sea has furnished by erosion the sediments which have been
deposited on their flanks. But when we remember the immense
thickness of these sediments and their extent, and the com-
parative narrowness of the granite axis which furnished their
materials, we may well ask what must have been the original
altitude of this granite axis! It seems impossible that the
immense mass of sediments invulved jin the structure of the
whole chain. Not only so, but in many chains the strata are
nite axes. My own belief is that all, smaller and greater,
ve been fore )
I believe, are not the débris of the granite axis of the chain;
position more definitely: Mountain chains are
ttoms
where immense thickness of sediments have accumulated ; and as
the greatest accumulations usually take place off the shores of con-
tinents, mountains are usually formed by the up-pressing of mar-
ginal ns. We will make this plainer by some illus-
* Mountain Building, &c., pp. 102 and 103.
been 40,
464 J. LeConte—Formation of the
trations taken from the history of mountain chains in North
erica.
Appalachians.—The area now occupied by the Appalachian
chain was, during the Silurian and Devonian ages, the eastern
margin of the bed of the great interior Paleozoic sea. During all this
time the whole Paleozoic sea, but especially this eastern margin,
received sediments from a continental mass to the northward
(the Laurentian area), and also especially from a continental mass
to the eastward. Besides the marks of shore deposit found
abundantly in the Appalachian strata, other evidences are daily
accumulating that the area to the east of the Appalachian
chain, left blank in the geological map of the United States im
Dana's text book—the so-called primary or gneissic region 0
the Atlantic slope—is Laurentian, and therefore was probably
land during the Paleozoic times. The size of this eastern contl-
nental mass it is impossible for us now to know, as it has been
partly covered by later deposits, and perhaps even partly cov-
the sea; but, judging from the quantity of sediments
carried into the Paleozoic sea. and especially from the thick-
ness of the sediments (30,000 feet) along its eastern margin,
derived probably wholly from this source, it must have been
bea large. Z
t the end of the Devonian age, much of the middle portion
of the interior Paleozoic sea was upheaved and became land
(see Dana’s map, Manual, p. 183); and the Appalachian area
now became alternately a coal marsh and an estuary emptying
into the sea southward. Into this estuary or marsh, during the
whole Coal period, sediments were brought from land north,
east, and west, until 10,000 feet more had been deposi
The subsidence of the Appalachian area, therefore, must have
een 40 t i
_ During the Coal period, therefore, the Appalachian region
was still nearly on a fore with the sea. So far from being 4
Features of the Earth's Surface. 465
convex plateau, it was a north-east and south-west trough. So
far from being a mountain chain, it was evidently lower than
the regions east and west of itself At the end of this period
occurred the Appalachian revolution. The great mass of sedi-
ments which had been accumulating for so many ages, with their
included seams of coal, yielded to the horizontal thrust, was crushed
together, and folded and swelled upward to a height propor-
tionate to the horizontal crushing. Thus was the Appalachian
formed—subsequent denudation has made it what it now is.
It is probable that in the process of the up-pushing of the
chain (or possibly at a later time) the eastern continental mass
was diminished by subsidence.
Sierras.— We have good reason to believe that, at least some
ortion of the area now occupied by the Rocky Mountains was
ry land even during the Paleozoic era. To what extent or
what height we do not know. I shall say nothing of the form-
ation of this the oldest portion of the North American Cor-
dilleras, as the history of its formation is little known. I will
commence with a considerable body of land which certainly
existed in this region at the beginning of the Mesozoic era.
Now, during the whole Triassic and Jurassic periods, the region
now occupied by the Sierras was a marginal sea bottom, receiving
abundant sediment from a continental mass to the east. At the end
of the Jurassic, this line of enormously thick off-shore depos-
its yielded to the horizontal thrust, and the sediments were
crushed together and swelled upward into the Sierra range.
All the ridges, peaks, and cafions—all that constitutes the
grand scenery of these mountains—has been the result of an
greatly enlarged continent until the end of the Miocene, an
then it also yielded in a similar manner and formed the coast
The view that mountain chains are the up-squeezed sediments
466 J. LeConte—Formation of the
of marginal sea bottoms completely explains the well-known
law of continental form, viz., that continents consist of interior
basins with coast chain rims. In fact, the theory necessitates
this as a general form of continents, but at the same time pre-
pares us for exceptions in cases of mountains formed from
mediterranean sediments. The view is best illustrated from the
American continent, because of the regular manner in which
lems seem to be reduced to their simplest terms, and therefore
are most easily studied and understood in America.
Prof. Dana, in a paper on “the plan of development of the
American continent,”* brings out some grand views on the
relation of the heights of coast chains and their position, to the
size and depth of the uceans which they overlook. From these
formal laws, and proceeding on the hypothesis of a fluid in-
terior, he concludes that sinking sea bottoms, determined by
interior contraction, is the force by which continents are
elevated. According to him, the sinking sea bottoms, together
with the lateral thrust produced by interior contraction, push
up the continents, at the same time crumpling up their margins
into mountain chains. Such a process might certainly account
for coast chains, for their position at right angles to the
greatest expanse of ocean, ind: for their heights and crumplings
being in proportion to the size and depth of the contiguous
oceans; but the mechanics of the process is, it seems to me,
untenable. For observe: this subsidence cannot be gravitative
subsidence; for this could not raise continents. It is evidently
a concave bending of the sub-oceanic earth-crust pressing on the
liquid interior, and through it pushing up the continental crust.
Now I have already shown that no stiffness of crust—not even
if the crust were several hundred miles thick—could stam
such strain over such immense areas. While I admire, there
fore, the formal laws of Prof. Dana, I cannot accept his phy sical
explanation. ‘
c.) Parallel ranges.—Whitney, in his essay on Mountain
Building, already referred to, has drawn attention to the a
that the celebrated law of Elie de Beaumont, that paralle .
ranges of mountains are of the same age, so far from being ue
is nearly the opposite of the truth. Parallel ranges, at bee =
of the same great system, are nearly always successlV ae
formed; and I would add successively formed coastward. na
illustrates this by reference to the three great ranges. of ie
North American Cordilleras, viz., the Rocky Mountains, ™e¢
Sierras, and the Coast range—and by the several ranges form
ing the South American Andes. The theory I have preset
at once explains this fact, and erects it into a law. Its4
‘necessary result of the theory. .
_-* ‘This Jour., II, vol. xxii, p. 335.
Heatures of the Earth’s Surface. 467
In this connection, I will throw out a suggestion. Attention
has been often directed to the truly wonderful submarine
ridges and hollows brought to light by the U. S. Coast Survey,
as occurring in the course of the Gulf stream, and extending all
along the coast from the point of Florida to the coast of
New England.* These ridges are truly submarine mountain
ranges running parallel with the coast, and to the Appalachian.
g Wim £ s-
as the Appalachian was formed on the interior basin margin of
they have
we may suppose f
become submerged in the partial subsidence of this continental
tamorphism of Jenc
thus far brought forward, I think it almost certain that moun-
tain chains are formed by the squeezing together and up-
swelling of lines of off-shore deposit. ut the question
naturally arises: Why does the yielding to horizontal pressure
place along these lines in preference to any other? I believe that
the answer to this question is to be found in the recent views
+ Prof, Bache, Proc. Am. Assoc., 1854, p. 140.
468 J. LeConte—Formation of the
on the subject of the aqueo-igneous fusion of deeply buried
sediments.
e accumulation of sediment, as first shown by Babbage,
and afterward by Sir John Herschell, necessarily produces a
rise of the geo-isotherms and an invasion of the sediments by
the interior heat of the earth. From this cause alone, taking
the increase of interior heat at 1° for every 58 feet, or about
90° per mile, and adding the mean surface temperature (60°),
the lower portion of 10,000 feet of sediments must be at a tem-
tae of about 230°, and of sediments 40,000 feet thick,
ike those of the Appalachian chain, must be nearly 800° F.
Even the former moderate temperature, long continued in the
presence of the included water of the sediments, would be
sufficient to produce incipient change—at least lithification, if
not metamorphism. In fact, lithification of sediments wi
probably take place under heavy pressure even at ordinary
temperature, but is no doubt hastened by high temperature.
The latter temperature of 800° is certainly sufficient to produce
not only metamorphism, but aqueo-igneous pastiness, OF
even complete aqueo-igneous fusion. With a small quantity
of alkali in the included water of such sediments, all these
ably continues during this process. Finally, this softening deler-
mines a line of yielding to horizontal pressure, and a consequent
up-swelling of the line into a chain. us are accounted for,
first, the subsidence, then the subsequent upheaval, and also the
metamorphism of the lower strata so universal in great mountain
chains. By this view, of course, the exposure of the metamor
a rocks on the surface is the result of subsequent erosion.
ven the granite axis, I believe, in most cases, is but the lower-
most, and therefore the most changed portion of the squeezed
mass, exposed by subsequent erosion; although it is by n°
means impossible that in some cases the granite may he squee
out as a pasty mass through a rupture at the top of the swelling
mass of strata.
The theory, as will be observed, strongly inclines toward
the metamorphic origin of granite, but does not require it.
_ For there is nothing to hinder the aqueo-igneous fusion of ap
_ original granite crust by the accumulation of sediments upo?
it, and the consequent yielding of the crust along the line of
accumulation,” ;
Soe
Features of the Earth's Surface. 469
(z.) Fisswres and slips.—The enormous foldings of the strata
which must occur in the formation of mountain chains by
lateral thrust would, of necessity, produce fractures at right
angles to the direction of thrust, or parallel to the folds, 2 e.,
to the range. The walls of such fissures would often slip by
readjustment by the force of gravity ; or else might be pushed one
over the other by the sheer force of the horizontal thrust. The first
case would give rise to those slips in which the foot wall has
examined the so-called volcanic rocks on this coast, both in
the Sierras and in the Coast chain, but especially in the former,
470 J. LeConte—Formation of the
can fora moment imagine that these immense floods of lava
have issued from craters. The lava floods of the Sierra and
Cascade ranges are, it seems to me, among the most extra-
ordinary in the world. Commencing in middle California as
immense but separate lava streams, in northern California it
becomes an almost universal flood several hundred feet thick ;
in Oregon the flood becomes universal, and at least 2,000 feet
thick, and this continues through Washington Territory and
into British Columbia, how far I know not. An area 700 to
By this theory, as by every other theory of mountain for-
mation, it is necessary to suppose that there have been in the
history of the earth periods of comparative quiet, during which
of revolution-
range, where it is cut through by the Columbia river and its
. Jerlaid ern boulder drift
Since that time we have been in what might be called a crater-
ly d
* Richthofen, th en, Natural ‘System of Volcanic Rocks : Memoirs of Cal. Acad.
vol. i, part 2d.
soon to give th der si i
+ I hope give the evidence of this in a separate co tion
Features of the Earth’s Surface. 471
In regard to fissure-eruptions, nothing but general contraction
and a squeezing out of liquid matter can account for the
Whitney* thinks this squeezing out the result of subsidence
of areas on either side of the mountain chain. I confess I do
not understand the mechanics of this. Of course it could not
be subsidence by weight, for this is inconsistent with the princi-
ples of hydrostatic pressure. It could only be by a concave
bending of a stiff crust pressing on a fluid interior; but this
over a large area is impossible, for the reasons already given in
the early portion of this paper. Besides, pressure on a general
interior liquid would be propagated equally to every portion of
the interior surface of the solid crust, which would therefore
yield not necessarily in a contiguous part, but at the weakest
point wherever that may be. In fact, if we admit the interior
fluidity of the earth, the mechanics of igneous agencies is sur-
rounded with insuperable difficulties on every side. The more
we try to arrive at clearness the more the difficulties seem to
accumulate. ‘
The theory which I have just presented accounts, it seems
me, for all the principal facts associated in mountain chains.
This is the true test of its general truth. It explains satisfae-
torily the following facts. 1. The most usual position of
tain chains near continental coasts. ~ 2. When there are several
ranges belonging to one system, the ranges" have usually been
formed successively coast-ward. 3. Mountain chains are masses
of immensely thick sediments. 4. The strata of which moun-
the cleavage planes being usually llel to the mountain
_ chain. 5. The strata of mountain chains are usually affected
with metamorphism, which is great in proportion to the height
of the mountains and the complexity of the foldings. 6. Great
* Mountain building, etc., p. 90.
472 J. LeConte—Formation of the Features, ete.
fissure-eruptions and volcanoes are usually associated with
mountain chains. 7. Many other phenomena—such as fissures,
slips, earthquakes, and the subsidence preceding the elevation
of mountains, it equally accounts for.
It will be remarked that the theory, though in its general
features, not dependent upon, yet strongly inclines toward and
is powerfully supported by, the views of Rose, Bischof, Hunt.
and others as to the metamorphic origin of granite and even of
igneous rocks; the view that surface materials have passed
by perpetually repeated cycles, through all the stages of rocks
and soils ; igneous rocks disintegrated to soils, carried away and
deposited as sediments, consolidated into stratified rocks, meta-
morphosed into gneiss, granite or even into lavas, to be again
_ after eruption reconverted into soils and re-commence the same
eternal round; and thus we look in vain for the original ma-
terial. I confess I lean strongly to this view.
I am fully aware that there are some phenomena of move-
ment of the earth’s crust which are not explained by the fore-
going theory. I refer especially to those great and wide-spread
oscillations which have marked the great divisions of time, and
have left their impress in the general unconformability of the
tangible which may be attacked and overthrown by facts an
by physical reasoning. We have had enough of vague theoriz-
ing in geology ; of vague shadows through which the trenchant
sword of science passes with no effect. It is time that the more
perfect methods of physics were applied to geology.
Oakland, Cal., May 15, 1872.
: E S. Dana—Orystal af Andalusite from Delaware Co., Pa. 478
Art. LVIL—Ona crystal of Andalusite, from Delaware Co., Pa. ;
by Epwarp S. Dana.
THE annexed figures represent a remarkable crystal of anda-
lusite, from Upper Providence, Delaware Co., Penn., received
by Professor Dana from Dr. George Smith, and now in the Yale
College Cabinet. Figure 1 shows the crystal (natural size) with
the planes as actually
occurring. It will be ath:
noticed that while all 9 rt
the known planes, “| |
with one exception ed
~ Tye}
(22), are present, there
is an irregularity in
their occurrence al- |
most amounting to a f
kind of hemihedrism;
li and 72 app but
once, instead of twice, |
}
|
i
|
|
}
and 72, 22, and 1 once,
instead of four times.
Figure 2 shows the
crystal in its theoretical form, with all the planes as they would
regularly occur. Za gave 88° 15’ (that is, 91° 45’), and O
the macrodiagonal section the angle 93° to 94°; this obliquity,
however, is not in the right direction to explain the partial
hemihedrism.
t
small, and there was nothing in their manner of occurrence to
Suggest that the peculiarity of the crystal figured was anything
more than an accidental irregularity. In all of these speci-
mens there was a great diversity in the prismatic angle, and
obliquity in the angle of O upon the diagonal sections was very
common.
A word should also be added-in regard to the cleavage in the
Specimens from Delaware Co. In most cases it was irregular,
many of the crystals having a fibrous, tremolitic structure, and
in others it was radiated. The regular cleavage parallel to the
prismatic faces, howeyer, did occur, and a chemical analy .
several of the specimens is needed to determine whether in the
former case any change in constitution had taken place.
Am. Jour. 7 Series, Vou. IV, No. 24.—Dzc., 1872.
474 E.. S. Holden—Spectrum of L[nghtning.
Arr. LVIiL—Speetrum of Lightning ; by Epwarp S. HoLpEN,
Lieut. of Engineers, U. 8. Military Academy, West Point.
I DESIRE to communicate to you a few observations on the
spectrum of lightning, which I could wish to be more complete.
The instrument was a pocket spectroscope of Hawkins & Wales.
The first set was made in Philadelphia shortly after sunset, on
the evenings of August 18, 14, and 15, 1872. There was a
continuous play of sheet lightning and frequent vivid flashes.
In the sheet lightning and in the fainter flashes the green
and blue portions of the spectrum were visible, the violet and
red cut off; in the brighter flashes a complete and continuous
spectrum appeared and superposed on it bright lines. The red
end of this spectrum (of vivid flashes) seemed to be shorter
than that of the spectrum of a common gas-jet turned down
low, with which it was constantly and almost instantaneously
compared, without moving from the place of observation.
From the sheet lightning I repeatedly obtained series of
bright bands in the green, but the width and intensity of these
bright bands continually changed. Of the bright and sharp
lines I saw but three :—1, line in green; 2, line in blue; 3, line
in violet (or extreme blue?).
Green. Red. Notes—The red ends slightly
Violet. rs =—__ ond 1.
2=D line, :
3 bounds yellow
5 near boundary of green
| green metimes blue.
7 6 6 4 a ee rane erat
The spectroscope was then turned to the lightning, and with
the above dark lines as reference lines the following br) 28
lines were mapped: (a) bright line Jess refrangible than red
(border) of spectrum, i. e., extra red; (b) bright line sligh y
ore refrangible than 4 (see fig.); (c) bright line near 9 OF
_ (fig.) “ green or blue” ; (d) bright line in blue between 6 and 7,
le.
Letter Jrom B. A. Gould. 475
The green portion seemed to have variable limits and to be
disproportionstely bright, but no green bands were seen. In
my note book I have marked (a) (b) and (c) “sure of.”
U. % ae Acad., West Point, N. Y., Oct. 9, 1872.
Letter r Ale Dr. 3B. Goutp, Director of the ge tte at
Cordoba, to the “Dilitors dated Cordoba, Sept. 4, 1872.
Searcely a mail has gone out homeward for many months with-
out we having experienced a-strong desire to tel
repeat ‘the old wie of obstacles and delays; for, ‘although we
have all worked to the utmost of our power, this interval has
served to show how erroneous were my estimates of what could
be accomplished within a given interval, in a ape country = at
a distance from those facilities to which we are so thor ghly
accustomed at home that it is difficult to feel how idisoeeenhie
they are, or to make allowance for their entire absence. nd
while anxious to fulfill my promise of writing to you, I was unwill-
ing to send tidings unacco mpanied wd accounts of something done
toward the fulfillment of my origin oh rane
devoted to soe research in this clear and trans spare
can now commence. an era of full activity, I shall not feel that
these years of toil in the joint capacity of architect, surveyor,
Sie ot engineer and mechanician, as well as astronomer,
have _—
ted Mprighnyesay. which have till now
wien’ unex
delayed the bom ae of the e observ rvations, have not
interfered with the Uranometry, whic has advanced as uninter-
identified from the hora pe and their
mean, — x of 1872°0; _ or for those ew whieh could not be
rat
a in the belt between 5° and 15° of N. declination
and expa tenths of a magnitude, For stars Ww 1.
ie Roan. we had no trustworthy basis; -~ ogee a Ages
arge proportion of our stars were noted as gree and
many even fainter than 7 by Lalande, Tey | pa risbane, 7 was
476 Letter from B. A. Gould.
indisposed to believe that stars ea below 64 or 6°6 could be
visible to the naked eye. Experiments made with cabs reba
failed to give a eaGuteclore restilt, a shits I fixed upon 65 as
aided eye being considered as below 6°7. The work had far
aavinged before the arrival of any means of accurately testing the
oo of this assumption; and my suprise was great when
er mparison of the faint stars within the espera with
‘Argelander’s “Durchmusterung” and Bessel’s zones, there re-
mained no room re doubt that the — which we had been
calling 6°5 was in reality not more than 7°0; and that on the
clearest nights ohare not brighter than 7-2 could be distinctly seen,
ea considerable number which had been seen and recorded
are not above the 7°5 magnitude. This is beyond all question,
and ee at once the transparency of our sky, and the sharp
of our observ
that the limit ought not to be brighter than 7 t was no
difficult to translate cet agnitudes recorded into the correspond-
ing true ones, since t of the stars had been observed two OF
seem.
the limits of vision ; Shite any systematic ed to diversity ri
the estimates of the several observers. cou uld be at once recognize
Th
and their places reduced to the adopted “tas For this rig
ion a large number of additional faint stars have been added t
the catalogue in the belt—those only being adopted as stant
ards of magnitude to which all four observers assigned the sam
Swing The scale thus established has been similarly ei ag
Letter from B. A. Gould. 477
by the accordant estimates of all, to two regions on opposite sides
of the pole, and at about 60° declination, so that an abundant
regions different from those which he had previously observed,
and each one is now engaged in repeating his former work, with
of the revision series. Thus I think we may believe that no
star brighter than the 7th magnitude will escape notice, that the
misidentifications will be few, and that the final results for the
magnitudes deduced from so large a number of observations, free
from systematic discordance, will be entitled to a high degree of
confidence, :
This revision, as well as the repetition of the original work, are
both of them more than half completed, and I see no reason to feel
otherwise than very well satisfied with the results. My great
of the work, a the combination and scrutiny of the results,
is quit i onsiderabl
observation. nd I doubt whether this could have been more
zealously or faithfully accomplished than by the gentlemen engaged
Am * i
especially, since it belongs to the northern hemisphere. It is the
ae in Maca No. 507 of the Hour VL in Weisse’s Bessel, the
place for 1872-0 being
6" 18” 19°-+7° 9'°2. : ae
Bessel called its magnitude 7, and Mr. Davis noted it as 6-1 in the
beginning of 1871; but his subsequent observations have shown it
to fluctuate between the limits 6‘2° and 7°3° in a period of about
31 di:
But enongh of the Uranometry, which must soon be brought to
@ conclusion. :
With the meridian circle I have already accomplished a very
fair amount of work in determining the positions of stars uniden-
478 Letier from B. A. Gould.
tified for the Uranometry, and of others regarding which there is
discordance in the existing catalogues. ‘The observations for lati-
tude are completed and will give a value which can probably not
be essentially nethide g without an investigation of the division
errors of the circle. I have not yet completed their discussion,
but the clbant latitude will not differ much from
—31° 25’ 15'4,
In connection with Sefior Moneta, Chief of the Corps of National
Engineers, 1 have already carried out two series of longitude-
determinations; the one with the city of Rosario, the other wit
uenos Aires. With each of these places ebiie-dhedabé have been ex-
changed on several nights, and with results that indicate that
Cordoba is in fact more than a minute of time to the westward of
the longitude of Santiago de Chile from European meridians is
doubtless better determined than that of any other point in South
America, the proposed undertaking should not only give us a very
oo ater result for this observatory, but likewise improve the
adopted values for Buenos Aires, Rosario and Montevideo. The
value which I am for the present adopting is
Cordoba “¢ 51™ 33° E. from Washington,
16 39 W. from Greenwich.
All obstacles to me commencement of the zone-work have, I
inted upon a pe in another room, and rovided with 4
herwis h
dial, or a fitting ag ak bat this Nga have entailed a delay
of at least four or five months; so, ignoring the want of local
Srgectariticn we have as ‘struggling since May in an a ges 3
to construct one of the « “home-made” sort, which should be
ciently nice in its mechanical execution never to miss second,
and yet interfere as little as possible with the clock rate. This is
at last pia sagen thanks to the persistent efforts of Dr. Sollee
and the dial is now perfo
Letter from B. A. Gould. 479
With the equatorial I was able to follow the comet discovered
by Tempel Nov. 3, 1871, on every clear night but one from Jan.
17 to Feb. 21, in spite of its extreme faintness. This comet was
let
observed in Europe only for about ten days, and I think the Cor-
a t . ‘
mong my most cherished plans in connection with this expe-
dition has been that of obtaining photographic impressions of
prominent star-clusters in this hemisphere, for measurement an
computation of the same kind as that bestowed, before leaving
home, upon Mr, Rutherfurd’s photographs of the Pleiades an
Presepe. With this view I made an earnest but unsuccessful
effort in Boston to obtain the needful means by subscription.
But in December last some of my near
necessary funds for the es a and equipment of a trained pho-
of thirty-six stars in the cluster in Scorpio, and a he
images oe the brighter stars are slightly elongated, they are jon
f the beautiful micrometer which has in his own :
such exquisite work, I cherish some hope of being able to se
oo
480 Letter from B. A. Gould.
you the palpable demonstration that by nr and ingenuity
something may be done even with a fractured len
The great scientific importance of a study of the singular mete-
orological relations of this country has made me unwilling to
neglect any opportunity of furthering such investigations; ~~
though greatly indisposed to sacrifice any time which might
devoted to astronomical ee With this feeling I have lost
no opportunity of urging © e Government the high importance
of an organized system of xibvebtclopieas observations, and a bill
arts
with the tes amg wee have provisionally undertaken
the organization management of this Bureau, but with the
hope of being able? elon long to resign it into some competent
hands.
I have also undertaken the Commissionership of Weights and
Heastien; hoping thus to contribute something toward the further-
ance of the great oo movement toward the unification
of weights, measure currency. And I am glad to announce.
that as a prelimina hes ep toward the practical inttodiction of the
metric system, it has been ordere the Government that from
and after Jan, Ist, 1873, all the measurements and records of the
custom houses of the nation are to be made me metric units. At
Loxsie every one of the 14 provinces has its own measures of
length and capacity, each differing from the seas. and all differ-
ing from those of pain, whence they were derived. It will not
be a difficult matter, 1 am co Abe tcet to bring the metric units
into practical use throughout tle 6 ntry.
Of other scientific news I have but little to tell. A very beau-
tiful meteor passed over the city of Tucuman at about 5 4. M.,
on the 21st August, dazzling those who were in the streets, and
alarming them not a little. It exploded with a loud report
motion is said to have — Ske the east, but no more definite
information could be obta
We are in the midst of me tempestuous but rainless sensch of
the year. Two or three times a week, hurricanes pass 0 r the
city, rendering the air opaque with dust and doing much injury to
s and houses. This is one of our great troubles, in consequence
of t the harm done to the instruments by the penetrating clouds of
fine hard clay-dust. There h has been no rain for many months, and
the bed of the Rio Primero is dry, below the upper part of the
city; a not very uncommon phenoauaseet
Chemistry and Physics. 481
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CuHemistry AND Puysics.
On Manometrie Flames ; by Dr. R. iol of Paris.—-
[The following 18 a translation of the latt tter part of Dr. Konig’s
admirable paper “On manometric flames,” recently published in
Poggendorg’s Annalen, Bd. 146, 8. 165. The figures annexed are
from electrotypes which accompanied the acoustic apparatus re-
cently sent pda Dr. Konig to the Stevens Institute of ‘Technology.
—A.
eae Rewantinds —In describing the results obtained by
the combination of the notes of two organ pipes, I did not make
1.
mention of unison. rn combination of two notes in unison is of
and the attending phenomena of interference. I there elt —
to describe them in connection with other similar experimen
482 Scientific Intelligence.
If we take two organ pipes in unison, attach to them two flames,
and sound one of them, the flame of the other will show that the
incInded column of air has had the vibrations communicated to it,
and that this communication continues even when the organ pipes
observed in the inset "Tf we now sou id the second pipe cole,
and thus induce vibrations of its own, these will combine with
the resonance vibrations, and the flame violently indicates beats
which can also be distinctly hear
I draw particular attention to thie isolated appearance of reson-
ance vibrations in the column of air, because this does not happen
in the case of two violin strings stretched over the same sounding
board, where the string vibrations are always combined with
the resonance vibrations in the influenced string, even if it is not
sounded. The beats produced by two such strings acting on
each other are of such nature that one reaches the maximum
amplitude while the other is at re minimum, The flames of two
organ pipes show the same phenomenon, one rising while the other
falls. In the latter both must et while it is necessary to
sound poly one of the strings.
In pipes of perfect unison whose vibrations make the same mu-
flame, the flame will, in the case of ines , be more violently agi-
tated than the two flames 8 were; for in the latter case they were
— both by direct and by induced vibrations, which in the same
column of air were of very unequal intensity ; nore however, two
notes of almost equal intensity are produced directly in two equa
columns of air. If the two notes are made gradually to approach
unison we shall observe that we cannot retard at will the beats as
ace suddenly ce two columns of air vibrate like 4
system, that is, like two mlebinarid tuned bodies which are so intl-
mately connected, a each other so strongly, that neither
can emit its gveung note; the seclgiacee being that but a single
note, a mean between the two, is This note is stron
than that of a single organ pipe and causes the flame to contract
in the center, an above a non-luminous blue broad ba
As we approach pure unison the height of this dark base increases,
the luminous contraction disappears and when unison is reache
the flame appears at rest. At the same time the strong funda-
‘mental note of the organ pipes has almost entirely disa ppeared,,
Chemistry and Physics. 483
and we clearly perceive the first overtone, since, as we well know,
the even overtones are strengthened and the uneven ones destroyed
whenever the difference of half a phase of vibration oceurs in the
two notes in unison. This octave [the first overtone] is also seen
in the flame which produces a series of low broad images in the
mirror each of which is cleft. It is well in this experiment to use
greater ‘bregi of the air in order to increase the intensity of the
octave in the
Since this cpaest lia of the octave in the interference of two
fundamental notes may be Sata vo beautifully | also by means
communication with the tube leading to the pe te capsule ;
which I did by means of gum tubes in such a manner that the
upper wind box of the syren preserved a limited inabilit irks as to
roduce and interrupt interference through its different _——
Yhenever we approach the point of interference of the upper
large vibrations of the fu ideisbke! tone
atti disappear, and the short cloven flame of the octave take
ss 8 special apparatus, which I constructed for observing pheno-
mena of inter st of different kinds, is based upon a method
first used by Herschell, and after him ‘by other physicists. The
principle gy in producing interference by allowing waves
coming from the same source
directions, differing in engi by half a wave-length, and then
uniting them again. A t ube is used branc ching off in two direc-
interference, we must introduce as simple e as possible into
the tube by connecting it with a resonator before which the cor-
responding Say React is sounded : now lengthen one of
which is a manometric capsule, si shall hay? len thening one |
ea how the deeply cloven flames in the revolving mirror are
soaly’ dl a inte baachs of light when the difference of half
wave-length is reached. Interference may be shown much more
beautifully by means of another arrangement, Instead of allow-
one. Ona stand are
dle one bein, saved Seok oh o gum tubes.
gas pipe of g) capsule with the highest burner, pa “poe “of the
*
484 Scientific Intelligence.
other capsule with the lowest, and by means of the other two
pipes I connected both capsules with the middle burner. If I now
2.
sound the tuning forks, both branches being of equal length, os
three flames in the revolving mirror appear as three sert
flames cloven to an equal depth one above the other. On ‘engi
ening one branch half a wave-length of the note, the middle one
alone becomes a simple band of light, while the other two com
tinue to vibrate with uncha i intensity. Here we observe at
the same time the effect produced by waves of sound coming
through each arm separately and oahen they are reunited.
a. in these experiments we use an open organ pipe, instead of a
uning fork with resonator, the vibrations of the octave appear
aids during the interference “sl oe waves of the > fandamental
note; provided the organ pipe is not of too great diameter. In
the same manner as the feb hte note we can also remove any
24 sgn rd a note by means of interference. This can be shown
very ni by means of a closed pipe. I introduce its sound
into the ata by connecting it to the latter by means 0
m tube attached to its termin are capsule, after removing
the gas burner. If I then pull out the tube so far that im
terference is produced for the ate 3, the middle. flame in the
Chemistry and Physics. 485
the arrangement of the three flames is particularly useful, because
the constant images of the upper and lower flames render the
slightest variations of the rst flame very perceptible, If U
an= 00] is sung to the note ¢ in the apparatus, the funda-
mental tone is but weakl y aiecesid by the octave; if we then
arrange the apparatus so that the waves of ¢ interfere, ev + trace.
of this octave disappears ; while on interference of the fi amen- ~
tal note two narrow flames of almost equal height take the place
of each broad one, which represents the octave which exists now
almost alone. If we sing O to the same note, where the octave is
stronger than with U, we ean make the same experiments, but
here the tone 3 appears on sine of the octave, the broad
flame of the fundamental note changing into three points succes-
sively i erie roe in altitude. If the waves of the octave inter-
fere we get a group of five peaks of flame which indicate the tones
1, 3, 5. If we suppress the fundamental tone and with it the tones
3, 5. etc., we get a simple series of flames caused alone by the
,a
especially in more composite groups of flames pertaining to th
ower notes, ill therefore remark, that on lengthening one
tube of the apparatus we often sudde very considerable
the point of interference of the lower octave or sae ot a higher
overtone of the note which is separated in this man
Instead of shies branchmg tube, in which the pound was intro-
duced in the preceding experiment, we can use two separate tubes
* exactly squat a length and shape, each of which consisting of
three pieces united a * in a telescope, so that the two open ends
may be turned i y direction without ne = length or
ing t
nt g
and for the ae of Zoch, I et prov are the ches with
two stop-cocks by which they may be filled and shone oe
; é erie ai
si
f the tubes with india rubber rings to prevent the
as from esca : at these poi
Of peril t ag appara on. do for direct observation of the
- different phenomena of interference with the ear, and for wc
ing the experiments of Mach, Quincke and others. For this pur
486 Scientific Intelligence.
ose we must put in the place of the flame apparatus one of the
forked tubes and connect this with the ear by means of an india
rubber tube.
2. On the light emitted by the phosphorescent compounds of
uranium.—BEcQuEREL has examined the phosphorescence spectra
of some of the compounds of uranium, and has arrived at the
following results: :
(1.) The compounds of protoxide of uranium hitherto studied
‘chloride and sulphate) did not exhibit any appreciable phospho-
rescence. But although some compounds of the sesquioxide are
equally inactive, this is not the case with the greater number,
which when properly treated give rise to a more or less vivid
emission of light.
(2.) The greater number of these phosphorescent substances give
a series of groups of luminous and dark bands which appear in a
art of the spectrum extending from about C to beyond but near
. These groups are 5, 6 or 7 in number, and the bright and dark
bands formed by them are not in the same places for the different
compounds, but preserve the same positions in the case of the same
substance.
(3.) If the succession of luminous groups in the spectrum charac-
terizes in general the compounds of uranium, the acid in the com-
pound determines the disposition of the bright and dark bands of
each group, which disposition may differ greatly for the different
compounds,
.) In the double salts of the same class, in the sulphates and
double sulphates for instance, the composition of each group
remains the same, but the index of refraction of the corresponding *
sulphates,
__ (5.) If we consider the characteristic lines or bands of each hada
in the same compound (which may be the center of a bright ban
or a dark line), we find that from the first group to the seventh,
differences between the wave-lengths of the corresponding luminous
rays diminishes; the ratio of these differences to the mean WaV
lengths also diminishes. i
.
Ole ne eee
Chemistry and Physics. 487
and may be regarded as sensibly constant. Moreover, with differ-
ent compounds this ratio only varies between limits but little
ena: from each Sti Thus we have for the mean value of
this rat
Substance. Ratio <
Obloride-of urawiumy 2. <i. 00.4 St os 0-000081
Chlor. of uranium and potassium, _.....- 83
Fluor. of uranium nr potassium, joi 81
Sulphate: of wrewium. oi... 5520. 232. 2 85
Sulphate of uranium si potassium, . . --- 84
Oxplate of: ureniane: 045 pies 8 86
Phosphate tn uranium and ‘sem Bt ge 82
Nitrate of ura DOM, 5 ss Gk cas we 88
_ Arsenate of uranium, os 2 ss en Sok 83
(6.) There does not appear to be es simple relation between the
wave-lengths corresponding to the homologous lines or bands of
the same luminous group in different compounds and the chemical
ht gd of these de leesy es.
7.) When we illuminate the solid compounds of uranium with
transmitted violet or nite vie et light, we observe in the most
differ for each compound, and which appear to correspond in this
part of the spectrum to less refr. igible’ groups of bo Peres
7 bands, and to continue their succession.— Comptes Rendus,
XXV, 296
n the e spectrum of the Aurora Borealis.—V ocr. has ‘made
an tiem to identify the spectrum of the aurora with that of air,
and has arrived at results which, if absolutely tnt scl
render the identification at least proba e author employed
a direct vision spectroscope with 5 prisms, “soliimator and eer rving
telescope, which last by means of a micrometer ond could be
moved so as to oe different parts of the spectrum into the center
Wave-length. Probable error.
0°0006297 00000014 = Very nang? band.
00005569 0-0000002 —_ Brightest line.
00005390 Very faint line.
0°0005233 070000004 ciate ot tiss se Bowes
right where the
stcscdaet er Sh vamos peste otherwise faint.
00005004 =. 00000003 ~~ Very bri
Broad ae somewhat less bright
00000003 inthe center; very faint w
0°0004694
the red line appears.
0°0004663 +
0°0004629
488 Scientific Intelligence.
For the purposes of comparison the author determined the wave-
lengths of the positive lines in oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and air,
employing for this purpose Geissler tubes, the discharge being that
of a weak inductorium. The spectra of both the narrow and the
wide portions of the tubes were observed both as regards wave-
length and intensity of light, and finally the spectrum of rarefied
the spectra of certain nebule (4=497'5). Finally the broad band
of gases under different circumstances of temperature and pressure
being well established.— Pogg. Ann., exlvi, 569. WwW. G”
4. On the heat of expunsion of solid bodies,—In the cases of &
number of different solids and also of water, Burr has com ared
the quantity of heat absorbed in producing expansion wit the
whole quantity absorbed, or, in other words, with the total specific
heat. ‘The author sets out with the extremely probable assump-
P :
of one cubic centimeter of iron, 1°°374 C., corresponds to @ work
of 100 kg. X 0°0000481 centimeters, or 4:81 centimeter-gramt
This quantity of heat is found in units by multiplying the welg
tJ
The total work which this quantity of heat is capable of faye
ing is 42000 gr.-cm, 17 = 49140 centimeter-grams, while : ie
a é 8
00000481 coteauie n-y57 071098 0°980
0:0000951 0-0000515 8-936 0°0949 14
00001401 00000573 10°301 0°0577 27378
0°0001791 0:0000466 18°035 0°0324 1°899
0:0000628 0:0000265 217166 070324 0°920
mad ; 0000854 11:165 0°0314 5°800
Glass, ° 00001451 0-0000262 27446 01770 | »
‘Water at 16°C., 0-0045854 0-0001600 0-999 1°000 3°81
2
:
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Geology and Natural History. 489
In this table the column « gives the cubic coefficient of extension
referred to the millimeter as the unit of length; column @ gives
the cubic coefficient of expansion for 1°C.; column 6 gives the
It will be seen that it forms a very small fraction of the 1
lt is thus easy to understand why it has not yet been possible to
raise the temperature of a solid by compression e als
: : me
that the latent heat of expansion exerts a very small influence on
IL GroLtocy AND NATURAL History.
Wyoming Coal Formations.—Prof. E. D. Core describes, in
hil. Soe.
Philad., a 1 :
by Mr. Meek and Dr. Bannister, at Black Butte Station, on the
Union Pacific Railroad, in Wyoming Territory. In this, as well
as in a later paper published in the American Naturalist on the
age of the Wyoming coals, Prof. Cope remarks, that the determi-
nation of the affinities of this Saurian proves that these coals,
which hold a lower position, belong to the Cretaceous age, and
not to the Tertiary, and he writes as if all others had been in error
on the age of the deposits. Prof. Cope was doubtless not aware
that Mr. Meek had, in 1871, referred Dr. Hayden’s collections from
this formation on Bitter Creek, at Point of Rocks, to the Cretace-
ous ;* and that this same careful paleontologist had also referred
the coal-bearing rocks of the same great series at Coalville, Utah,
and at Bear River City (Sulphur Creek), Wyoming, to the Creta-
ceous in 1870, as did also Mr. King and Mr. Emmons.+ ;
as long back as 1860, Mr. Meek, in connection with Mr, Engel-
t. Simpson’s collections from these rocks, in-
a
the locality and stratigraphical position of the Hallville coal mi
be had then never visited, and suppos
ward, and at a much
Jardin Fruitier du Muséum, un Ieconographie de touts les Espéces
et Varietes d’Arbres Fruitiers cultives dans cet Etablissement, &c.
* Hayden's Report of 1871, p. 375. + King’s 4to Report of 1870, p. 461.
¢ Proc. Ac. N. Sci., Philad., 1860, p. 130. || This Journal, March, 1871, i, 195,
Am. Jour. a ae Serres, Vou. IV, No. 24.—Dec., 1872.
490 Scientific Intelligence.
Bote of the edible varieties of pears, may have ’more interest
for the horticulturist. But the present gehen As the special atten-
tion of the scientific botanist.
As stated in the Introduction, Prof. Decaisne entered upon his
tions under which the separate collection of fruit-trees was consti-
tuted, and the professor of culture was charged with its manage-
ment, and was directed to bring together all the known varieties,
with all their names, “afin d’é tablir une uniformité de nomencla-
ture necessaire pour toutes les parties de la République.” This is
decree of the National Convention, June 10, 1793. The collee-
tion which Decaisne has so diligently and acutely studied actually
dates from the year 1792, when the fruit-garden of the Chartreux
of Paris was broken up, and two trees of each variety transported
to the Jardin des Plantes. In 1793 it contained 185 varieties. In
1824, when Thouin died, there were in it 265 varieties of pears
alone; it has now more than 1400 varieties of this fruit. It is
interesting and important to know that collection still preserves
oe rtion of the very types described a century ago by
hamel. or cana years Prof. f Devaisne studied the incomparable
which he is so skillful, and an hebark ium of their flowers and foli-
ci ge aeias which 86: - now bringing to a ¢
ke ect nomenclature and ‘available characters,
this is difficult cinch: as all ahgenaes know, for the species them
selves (which must needs have, or be assumed to have, real dis-
measly named without system, ‘vometines of mixed origin, and
often too like each other to be distinguished by “7 1 ae
descriptions. Here colored plates are a necessity ; en
this great standard work, upon which no pains have boi spared,
leave little to be desired that art can supply.
In France alone they count about 800 soe of pears; the origin
of most of them is unknown, and many are undoubtedly very
ancient. Indeed, accordin to J ordan ‘kad his school these ee
ences are primitive, and the so-called races and varieties, bo
wild and cultivated plants, represent so many ¢
Geology and Natural History. 491
species. But M. Decaisne, not content with the reductio ad absur-
Sr leesce; and the Ob irole. Of the last the ‘four trees raised bore
fruit of fake different forms. From the Belle Alliance he obtained,
Z late f
pears raised from the An ngleterre. These rosea even led him to
doubt the cases cited eb Darwin of the reproduction of =
ears from seed, He insists, moreover, that very bad fruits may
e raised from choice cultivated pears, and that good varieties
may be obtained from the seeds of wild pears. The latter is not
what one would expect in the first generation.
Our author proceeds to state that the trees raised from seed
taken from the same fruit differed, not merely in their dora and
in the nad of ripening, but no less in their flowers and in the form of
the lea Some were thorny, others thornless ; some produce
slender shookés others thick and stout sa dc. It is worth
n
lanted were derived, whi ight ave influenced the product
through the now well-ascertained influence of the pollen upon the
peri We perceive, however, that would re his
carp.
unimportant, since pear-varieties are of the lowest grade, incepanie
ely to impress by their pollen ‘characteristic upon t e
poset of another variety.* lar, core ate of the uction is
occupied with further evidence that the Pear-trees of ‘cultivation
* Yet the apple, which i is in ss uae e case, does so. An interesting mmatance of
this kind lately came under our notice, an apple from a spitzenberg tree, one-half
to surf ai half t
492 Scientific Intelligence.
races, or distinct but closely related types, in very early times,
and those under cultivation have themselves varied and subdivided
more anid more. Finally, M. — maintains, seemingly with
good reason, tint + to combine into one genus the Apple, Pear,
Quince, Sorb and Mountain Ash, as ces by Linnzeus and followed
by the latest authorities, is to misconceive the laws of the viateieal
h u
system ; tha nite generically these plants, which differ in
the sod a of their wood, the vernation of their leaves, their
inflor e, the xstivation of the corolla, and the structure of
thei r fruit, : Hogicaly leads to the combination of all Pomacee into
one ordingly restricts the genus Pyrus, or (restor-
ing the classical Sabagraphy) Pirus, as did Pournefott and Jus-
sien, to the er. To the organography of this restricted
observed is ugh He notes that the vernation of the
leaves is involute in Py t Cydonia, Mespilus and
a; t the cottony-leaved varieties, no less than the smooth
ones, are glabrous in the seedling stage; that all varieties of the
the mean temperature reaches about 10° Centigrade, without per-
ceptible difference between the a and the latest-ripening
varieties; that the exstivation of the corolla is convolute in
ydonia, bu
cial i in other Pomacewe (but in the two ee of nies owers on
and the convolute modes which often occurs, but which ae
be Aa as the type of certorexotaeeat that tere are two types o:
to size of the corolla in the common Pear, the smaller flowered
type comprehending most of tha culsivared varieties ; that the
r of Pear-blossoms is rather disagreeable than otherwise in
contrast with those of Malus, which are sweet-scented. Moreover,
the anthers in the Pear genus are tinged with violet; those of the
— genus are yellow
s to the morphology and development of the gynw¢
Decaisne reproduces in full the note which he published in ae
Bulletin of the Botanical Society of France in 1857. From his
ponent iy it pete that the five carpels in their early devel-
re free and distinct in the concave center of the seen)
may it “ later sihee: when the concave om as has beco
up a
which
‘he flesh
Geology and Natural History. 493
whole exterior flesh as calyx, Prof. Decaisne (no doubt correctly)
regards it as mainly receptacle or axis,—an hypanthium which in
common pears is largely a hypertrophy of the peduncle, after the
fashion of Anacardium.
In the proper Pear genus, the ovules never exceed a single
pair; this should therefore enter into the generic character.
‘Theophrastus had already remarked that the older the Pear
tree, the more prolific, and every day’s experience confirms the
The gritty grains or lignified cells
which are so abundant in the flesh of many sorts of pears are not
wholly absent from ay of them. To them is due the roughish
surface of the skin, as contrasted with the smooth skin of a ples.
is curious to remark that Meyen, in his Pflanzen-Pathologie,
considered the gritty grains to be a disease which attacked pears
and quinces.
mal size by supporting the growing pear from underneath, instead
of ae it to hang on the a pear M. Decaisne has seen
mucilaginon, except of a Photinia, in which it is reticulated. The
cotyledons are accumbent relative to the rhaphe, et by in a Pho-
tinia, ciaanater Pyracantha ( Crategus Pyracantha Pers.), and
Eriobo a@, in which they are incumbent. At first there is a thin
layer of albumen, which disappears at maturity of the seed.
are commonly grafted upon a Quince stock. But it is
confidently asserted, and generally supposed, that there are more
ut,
as Prof. Decaisne Bia horticulturists are too apt to get
: . re
with the quince stock. He naturally Ty Dave assertion made
survived at least six years, but without vigor, and bore fruit il
this antipathy confirms the generic difference between Pyrus an .
alus,
494 Scientifie Intelligence.
We must pass over the sections on the diseases of the pear, and
the parasitic plants and insects hurtful to it ; while as to that on
e
pears is thus far an impossibility; and that in Eh older nothing
quasi-species, P. cordata, Boissieriana and ene oe 2. The
ermanica, or Pyrus communis, neluding our com-
mon pears, both pear-shaped and oe ed, ‘ “both forms ss
often met with upon the same tree.” rae der thi
a drink. It
in the north of France in the fifteenth century or later, and is now
giving way to wine and perhaps beer again; and that pears would
ave cctesiel ‘before this on a part of Normandy, hy it not
that they are carried in immense quantities to rate ere they
are used in the mawufucture of champagne. ‘the. Hellenic
Race, which comprises P. parviflora and three seer subspecies.
4. The Pontic Race, P. salicifolia and its allies. 5. The ~ ian
Race, P. Pashia and its ar Pees 6. ahe Mongolian Rae
Sinensis and its varieties. As one turns over the excellent plates
one can hardly be persuaded that ee extremely diverse forms
ra shows
study is
to rhea oe — about as much as he diminishes the yt of
of the
U. 8. ra beg Survey of the Territories for 1871 ; ne! os a
QUEREUX.—This su ‘seit by M. Lesquereux (prepared i fay,
1872) contains the capt Sgn of a number of species of fos
Plants from specim
— in print. The essential F these marked by the slows? as
et 3:
pork as yet chested | tafe oe Tertiary flora. The num-
species is thus increased to
Astronomy. 495
2d. It fixes the eae ea horizon of three localities in different
stages of ae Tertiary and marks the location of a group of speci-
mens of as yet =a ae
of the Tertiary flora of the North ‘Acwabiane continent, accordin
to climatic ditferences at different degrees of latitude, iia at the
same time, it recognizes identity of the characters of this vegeta-
tion at wide eeseniee peices the same latitude.
5th. It shows a intimate relation between the present
et and that of the Parinrg by the Saiotieg of new types iden-
tica in
elation is especially indicated by the fossil plants of Green-
Dives silica which from their more recent omee are referable to
the Upper Miocene. Among species of Salix, Myrica, , an
hus, whose representatives are intimately relate to species of
our time, the fossil flora of Green River has an Ampelopsis and a
Morus which b y their marked affinity natin in the Tertiary the
origin of our now so predominant and widely distributed Vir-
ginian Creeper and Red Mulberry.
Iti. Astronomy.
1. Elements of Alceste ; by Prof. C. H. F. Perers. (Editorial
Correspondence, —. Litchfield Seong tinea ke f Hamilton College,
Clinton, N. Y., Nov. 9, 1872).—The following elements of Alceste
— have been seeped from pa ra He of Aug. 23, Sept. 22,
Hote 1872-0 Berlin mean time.
M,= 22° 28’ 1’"9 o= 26’ 58'"'80.
m=- 346 59 47° he ti f= s 4°47,
= 186 19 39°65+-52°573, ¢. log a= 0 sayin fe t.
t= 2 55 47°48—0°455, t—counting ¢ in Julian years from
1872°0.
IV. MiIscELLANEOUS ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. Analysis of the Meteoric Iron of Los Angeles, California ;
by Dr. ©. I. Jackson, State Assayer of Massachusetts. (Communi-
cated to one of the editors).—Having received from Mr. .
nape
you. The original mass is stated to have weighed 80 lbs. The
slice I eeoeived arto 30 grams. Its specific gravity is 7°9053.
It shows, when acted upon by dilute tad acid, innumerable
scales of Schreibersite, but not the usua
In the chemical analysis I found in the imacabhe bea, on
reduction by, blowpipe, a minute globule of tin. The was
separated by succinate of ammonia and the nickel by pure ; potalan:
‘
496 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
The following are the results of the analysis per cent.
Metallic vob.) i iwel eis HA Ae ee
Motallic.sipkel, ooo wees as Lee Cee 15.73
Matallio Ghigo Ll as Sea eee 0.01
Phosphorus ‘and other undetermined matters, . _--- 3°52
100.00
This analysis, although not quite complete, shows beyond doubt
the meteoric nature of the Los Angeles iron.
Boston, Sept. 26, 1872.
2. Tables and a See mcg to Bi eng Nagle Engines
and Boilers ; by W. ROWBRIDGE, 0 namic Engineer-
wins. 6 6k periments occupied s SR onths, and were made
with an engine and apparatus se datiucied especially for the
An extended list of engines is published, embracing powers
from 5 horse-power to 350 horse-power, amounting in number to
he. amounts of water whic iler will evapor te in one hour.
discussion of the questions of horse-powers of boilers, and
of boiler ekptosione, ears! valves, &c., is added. new an
very simple im _ soar to the safety ‘valve, suggested by the
author, is also give
e work throughout i is intended to be practical but at the same
time it adds to existing knowledge of the subjects discussed the
results of the latest reliable experiments.
3. Bioxam ae Loupon): Chemistry, Tnorgani ie and
ganic, with ents. Second Edition (American rps
Lin indsay & Blakiston, Philadelphia, 1872. 8vo, pp.
Bloxam’s doesornghd has been a familiar and. alge Saratory
ecture-room companion for several years. The present edi-
The text is written in simple language, as devoid as ee e
oe and designed to lead the learner on by easy steps
s 5 ina oo chemical principles. The author’s vaiens as &
Miscelianeous Intelligence. 497
lecturer in the Royal ae, Academy at Woolwich has very
properly led him to give more than usual prominence to those
subjects which are of sacienik td the military student, as, combus-
tion and fuel, gunpowder, gun-cotton and other explosives, the
process of bread making, glass, pottery, the chemistry of building
materials, and kindred subjects
4, Report of the Mt. Uniache, Oldham, and ae Gold
Mining Districts, with Plans and Sections; by Henry Yous
Hinp, M. ade under instructions from the Hon. Cotininathinas
of Public Works and Mines. 62 pp. 8vo. With maps and sec-
ne Halifax 87 ae
once for publication, have been issued. They a are views of
Jupiter, craters of the moon, the sun’s protuberances, the — a2
the total eclipses of August, 1869, and of December, 1870,
and are very beautiful. The series will consist of thir irty eae
Subscriptions are solicited ; the charge for the series is ten dollars,
OBITUARY.
Joun F, Frazer, Professor of Natural Philosophy and Chemis-
try in the University of vist at bbepeaa died on the 12th of October,
in the ing ver of his a
self i ie membership for a ong time of the Ist ‘ity Troop
He arition at ~_ organization to suppress oe ots of °44
At the
razer Sis i he assistant of Prof. pe Dallas ge a
the Coast Survey, during his observation at the then new physica cal
observatory for magnetic phenomena at Girard College. In both
these instances he was a voluntary assistant.
1836 he became the assistant of Professor Henry D. we _
Lovie lature. Professor Frazer igned this position as First
Assistant State leaioiet ger apie one creke, and then took up the
study of law in the office of Hon, Wm. M. Meredith. Having
498 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
concluded his law studies, he realized ‘ag cherished dream of his
youth in his elevation under the regime of Provost Ludlow to the
chair of natural philosophy and ch ct in the academical
department of his Alma Mater. ‘This position he filled with the
highest honor to his aes and to himself for over thirty years.
oon after assuming wes wn ft the professor, he became the
rnal
the cit , and was the rendezvous for the most pawn
scientists in this and foreign countries when they visited Philadel-
phia. was known throughout Europe by bis constant writings
as Ps ig pearls in science and universally learned in his depart-
He was a member of the Academy of Natural spaascr
of this city, and also one of the four secretaries of the
ociety of a in this country—the American Philosophical
Society of this city.
Although holding the chair of chemistry and natural philosophy,
his favorite science was that of mathematics as applied to mechanics.
This branch brought out his close study and keen appreciation of
all the basic laws of mechan ies, and raised him to a deservedly
high rank as a transcendental mechanician
Professor Frazer had a remarkably gen nial disposition, was full of
life and humor among his fellows, and though brusque in manner
and decided in his intercourse with his sical he was ace
liked by all who came in contact with him. was bold and
pti ei in all his seen, being an sr Dem noe its
Notes of an Ornithological Reconnoissance of portions of Kansas, a’
8h teenies and ee by J. A. Allen, 72 pp. 8vo. aoa 1872, Being No. 6, ¥
IH, of of the Museum of Comparative Zoolo ogy at t Harvard College,
Cacabride Lom f this
Problem of Rotary Motion presented by t ho-Gyrosoope, th Procession ©: No.
Equinoxes and the Pendulum, by Brevet Mision J. @. aad 48 pp. re
240 of the Smithsonian Contributions to Kn rior
Intermembral Homologies. The Co orrespondence ‘of the Anterior and pve rs
Limbs of Vertebrates; by Burt. G. Wilder, M.D., Prof. Comp. Anat. and yon
Cornell Univ., Ith aca, N.Y. 88 pp. 8vo.. From the Proceedings of the
Nat. Hist., vol. xi
INDEX* TO VOLUME IV.
Abich, H., igi on hail in the Caucas-
sus, no otice
Academy Nat. Sa seis Proceed-
ings, notice
Adger, J. B., alee of tale, 4
‘Bor.
Pitan Tuckerman’s arrangement of,
420.
Micheli, researches in vegetable phys-
iolo
Musci ‘Appalachiani, 7
Agas pase L. Lieras action in irinein and|| Pyrus, Decaisne’s ae 489,
Patagonia, 35. Seedlings, growth in, Draper, 392.
Coal of ves 143. Sequoia, its history, Gray, 282
Alcohol, an aldehyd, 132. See further under Gronoey.
Allman, Graptolites, ae Boussingault, gee in the blood, 78.
Associati mn, Ame , Dubuque meet-||2radley, F. H., new land snails from the
meeres eae
ra Australis, 243, 326.
Aurora on cage ot Feb, 156, 158.
spe of, 4
Austin, C4 Fr, Masel Appalachiani, no-|
ticed, 76 76.
Coal-measure 5, 8.
uebec formation i in —— 133.
bee cks
the Teton range, 2
notice acts — a the works of J.
Barrande,
Brooks, cs re lowe Silurian rocks in St.
Lawre ce Oo., N. ies
Fore hr new organic base from dul-
B
Feed B gpg resend hc
we birds of North America, no-
Baker, Ma cere of, 1
er, G. ¥, chemical peat 710,
aceasta 7. notice of works of, and 0
rigi
a springs, td.
patties. 1 noticed, 496.
” arear vation of solar spots,
nition. 242,
—s n Soe. Nat. Hist., memoirs, noticed,
Botanical intelligence, 4
notices, Gray, 72, 19, £20, 489.
publicatio hit) noticed, 4
Borany—
botanical ener, 149,
sow Branton, 151, or
* The aids contains the general h
cite, 313.
Bourgoin im, water - an eee
Bows, prismatic, on Lake Gen
Buff, heat of Sankiatia of oiaa ee
Cc
Carbon, specific heat of, a
Cave; bone, in Bavaria, 69.
Ceria, se aration from zirconia and iron,
230.
perotage formation of, 312
re to, Draper, 445.
ld, eff exposure
Collodion film, stability of, Rutherfurd, 430.
tion 0?, 229.
D
Dana, E. S., Datolite from Bergen Hill,
Ned.
er rte * andalusite from Delaware
Co.
] island subsidence, dat
or staan of Pr0 fT. S$. Hun
before ~— meneedd eile 97.
an and under
a a
500
Dana, J. D., rate of growth of coral reefs.
qua artzite, limestone and associated
rocks of Great Barrington, Mass., 362
venport, +, chemical investiga-
tion of astern jron, 270.
Davidson, glaciers of the Pacific coast,
156.
Dawson, J. W., Eozoon, 65.
peer ez, monograph of Pyrus, noticed,
489.
Delesse and gs ries Revue de Géolo-
gie, notice
Dewar, iS soeeiak! efficiency of sun-
n - glutanice acid by
Cz, heat sey ae in the etree
and effects ‘of exposure to cold, 44
evolution of structure in seoaiieea
Draper, J. 4 oe of heat in the
spectrum,
E
Earthquake, Owen’s Valley, 316.
Bathquakes Sai Rockwood, 1.
Edwar ne, fossil birds, 138.
Bletrity, ‘discharge
Rood, 2
new pavenie pile, 405.
— see Hetg.
a J temperature of the surface
of ‘the su
Erratum, ina
Ettingshaus Usen, C. z chestnut tree in the
ry, 79.
of Leyden jar,
Tertia
Buclid’s giles of parallels, 333.
F
Fatty series, er Ee eters of, 131.
Flames, gas, electri condition of,
iin
manometric, Konig.
Frazer, P., 7 seca salt from
Colorado, 2
G
Gabb, Aurora of Feb. 4
Gaiffe, new galvanic si 4 pia 5.
anual of qualitative anal-
iffe, 0
porte: R., m
n
INDEX.
een te Poms of India, memoirs, no-
ate
ano fen
Babiana Nelson
os isda
Birds, fossil, po wing 256,
Milne- Edw see
Cambrian and Nai es of the
names,
Carnivores, new genus of, Marsh, 406.
Coal formation of Wyoming, 489
Coal-m
Coal o , 143
Coral teak, iekieams Dana
poctnosw region of N: a9 Cari and
orgia, Shepard, 1
Crustacea fossil, Merostomata 322.
ticisms, Hun
Dan
Bolian nimestone, tsi in, + Billings, 133.
Eoz
Features a ne gael — forma-
f, mae a0 ee 460
ace tolite
Hunt’s whe rede ‘Amer. Assoc.,
Man, fossil, i in Italy, 2
Mamm rsa fossil, Laid, 3
Marsh. 122, 142, 203, "322, 323,
43, :
Ohio, northeastern, 3
eee species, bags of, Barrande,
FI ants, gree and Lower Carboni-
ferous, 236. st" sabia,
Post- facial eri
Qua arr ana in the Eocene, Marsh 405.
arr — ete., of Great Bar-
satan, _ Dana, 362, 150.
Quebee and | CaPhoniferous rocks in the
Quebec formation in Idaho
Reptile, new, Cretaceous, phere 406.
Reptiles, Tertiary, Marsh, 298.
Rhinosauru etl on, Marsh, 147.
Siluriun os ‘Meck, 274.
in St. Lawrence Oo., N. Y.,
Broo:
Southwest, Hagar , 265.
Tertiary basin of Marafion, Hartt, 53.
Terti seairit sed in. :
Veustrs fossil, the Niobrara
and Upper Miscouri 2.
Wet India Is., the northwestern,
, abs — spectra of vapors of
selenium, ete
‘iGervais, P., Zesloigio et Paléontologie
oticed,
1.
générales, Dame doen At 59, 129,
7 a
486.
226,
INDEX.
Glacial _ in Fuegia and Patagonia,
Agassiz,
epoch change of climate during,
Geikie
Phenomena near New York city,
Stev
Blacier of the — 135.
— of < eis: 1, de gry
acific coas
Glutanie arid, peductio one iodhyarie, 131,
cein, be ama of vapors from
bag serise:
Gor ae fluoride of wy is
Gould B. A., letter fro
oo i botanical oem 7 149, 420,
oa
address before the American Asso-
’ Ciation, 282.
How plants behave, noticed, 77.
H
Hail in the Caucasus, work of Abich
501
|\Hunt, T. S., eee on the late criticisms
of Prof. Dana a,
history o Pg ee names Cambrian
and Silurian, noticed, 4
Hyatt, A., embryology of fossil Cephalo-
pods, noticed, 242,
I
Inuline, Prantl on
Iodine, mai ented se the vapor of, 59.
Tron in
Iron, Saito, Davenport, 270.
= 5
prerde C. fT, analysis of meteoric iron,
Freche M., observations in the Bermudas,
J upiter, color of bands, 327.
D,
Hau, J., reply. a Ye “ note on a question
of pri rity,”
fossils boar Falls of the Ohio, no-
ticed,
descriptions of fossils, noticed, 143.
fossils igo the Devonian of Lowa,
noticed, 241
Harger. 0O., descriptions new North)!
American domes
Hartt, C. F, i: MGihs of the
Maraiion, 53.
er ae exploring expedition, 133, 158,
Has in 7 2 red oxide of zine of New
Jersey,
Heat of f expansion of solids, 488.
ethod ee: tracing wave of con-
cote Mayer, 37.
pr roduced in the body, Draper, 445.
Heer, Devonian and ested Carbonifer.
ous plan ced,
bes He Hist it ee ot the Mississippi,
Hilgard. E. W., some hat in the geo-
logy of the Southw
soil ee ey hte utility, 434,
oo H. a on mining district,
ced, 4
Biteheook, Gs HL, geological report, no-
ced, 4
Hoi id, ectrum of the aurora,
K
Kau-sun, 151.
Kenngott sterlingite and roepperite
Ketones
eutgen Jr., C., tempe
for July at Staten I.,
Kirkwood, D., meteors of April 30th,
ay 1
ce
in relations between the
motions of - Peto lia of the
‘tans outer planets, 2
Kénig, R., manometric ane 481.
ss ae and Davreux, damouritic
e schist,
L
Langley, S. P., ee from Allegheny
Observatory, 327
Alleghany system of electric time
signals, 377.
Lea, [., Re etifieation pa mee Synop-
sis of = Naiades, noti
Le Conte, J. ries theory of formation of the
great fe ’s surface,
345, 4
: phe orthoclase, 433.
r Mi
a et aerial from is
z "9, sp
423, ‘of lightning, 4 474.
Holman, D. S., \ife slide for microscope,
Poker, J. D., flora of India, noticed, tio report
Hughes, T. McK., sharks’ teeth of the C
pepeeant to have been by
. 241
239.
tuaeiceds pees
Lightning, spectrum of, "olde 474,
of State Duhearmey,
Pesca Nat. Hist., Proceedings, noticed,
Lyman, C. S., August meteors, 244.
502
et, J. W., native tas acid, 418.
weit te in recent e timber, 419.
t, R., voleanic enerey, 409,
troleum in San Do-
', descriptions of new Ter
tiary mammals 8, pt. ‘i Bet pt. II, 209,
note on Rhinosaurus, 147.
sen “Tertiary ait "Poat Tertiary
birds, 256.
gs of new Tertiary rep-
car part
as, on
INDEX.
MIN
Fichtalt, Mallet,
see ‘tangparent, tine Silesia, 147.
pet
Olig igclaso f from babes oor eee 146.
hoclase, bai
Sa on effloresce
Serpentin “6 "pseudomorph 41.
Stirlingi
Sulphuri
Tale, Savile
Reepperite, 146
6.
mer native, 418.
Adger, 419.
Zeunerite, 146.
Zine, red oxide of, of New Jersey,
SI,
remarkable fossil mam oe ayes,
w and remarkable fossil bird, 344. Miater, W. G., estimation of sulphur in
oo in the Eocene of Wy-|} coal and fais mpounds, 90.
oming, 4 Moon, change of objects on, 326
oll, 229.
new condi of Carnivores, 406.
Botany for Beginners
method of tracing a wave
wel eae heat, 37.
au’s pene on the influence
of a motion of translation of a mas
ing body
198
e of th © errata, 2
measuring phases of Feiss in
agen g a sounding body, etc.,
en .
eo race, cere nete
on velocities of so in gases, and
n an acoustic pyrometer, 425,
Mayer and eter
the fatty series, 1
Meek, F. B., Fc ee of Silurian fos-
sils from Ohio, 274.
Cretaceous
78.
ology of Staten I., Keutgen, Jr.,
Meteors April 30th—May lst, Kirkwood,
cs aa in vegetable
ogy,
el life slide, 323.
oe Foal Dana, 473.
Bartholom’
Carolina and
Georgia, Heard, oa 175.
ie from Nevada, 146.
new | from the y ta Sane 406.|| Mors
MT.
or
on the ‘pitch of the sound, || Nord
ee of}.
Motion, molecular,
orse, 'E. S.,, a and embryology of
Te rebratulina, 2
N
M . J., Bahamas, 31
N. itro-compounds of the ce pitas 131,
Norton, new platinic chloride, 312.
‘on, v A., molecular and pear
physics, 8. :
Nova Scotian Ins. of Nat. Sci., publica-
tions noticed, 72.
0
OBI
Dulacnic’, 332.
Gray, G. R., 160.
wide ay John F., 424.
Perry, J
Swift, oleh 60
Observatory, Cordoba, Gould, 475.
Harv eel nals, nD
noticed, 242.
a mical views issued by,
243, 497, :
Melbourne, observations, noticed,
158.
object- sp of equatorial stolen, 327.
US. Nav ; dre Scots ons, noticed, 156.
Ohga's law Alone etrical point of
Wi toueriiiga, ©
Fra e, production of, ‘Wright, 26.
vuleanized
Wright, 29.
caoutchoue,
P
Packard, A. 8. embryological studies,
ni 158.
Damouri'
Datolito from Bergen Ti. J., Dana,
Packard and Putnam, life in Mammoth
Cave, noticed, 14
INDEX.
Parallels, Euclid’s doctrine of, Twining,
Perrey, A., work on earthquakes, noticed,
Pace CALE,
new a 244, 281.
rs,
ospho co and platinum, compounds
508
ne seer L. M., stability of collodion
a pMage emitted by the vapor of
Schi at hen
phosphor oh 9 latiatts
Seue, névé of Fuatedal and its gla-
cie .
unds containing
» 227.
ntai
Physics, ae and cosmical, Norton, Shelton, a. beavers and beaver-dams,
planots elements of, Peters, se 495.
Pla = four outer, on ce relations
th e mean motions sof the peri-||
acts of, Kirkwood, 225, 32'T.
rei, new, Pe eters, 244, 281.
riment in reference to
ses, a eae 226.
Popa ‘sation om ketones,
the hoe ak violet
_chatyant colors in
— tric, effect of change of,
on
Prestwick, Ji; solvent action of water,
carla tion of the a of
tain, France ann a 13.
Biority.: reply to
Hall, 105 ; nde seg
Pri: g, Zent
Pseudom Anceiesa of seein “Fisk 71.
Pyrometer, acoustic, Mayer, 425.
Rainier, Mt., height of, 156.
Rand, T. D, pseudomorphs of serpen-
; re from Lancaster Co., Pa.,
2.
— Pea mineralogical investigations
Reade, . ~ vo on Post-glacial period, |
on esti of,
oy. (ite
4%
Sh rd, Cc. U., corundum region
North Carolina fe Georgia, 109, og
Silver, fluoride of, 6
omy: 1azzi-, spectra of star-shine,
Sel analyses t their utility, Hilgard, 434.
ound, m ae ring wave-lengths, in gases,
gerry 425.
ona paper of soe ad son, Mayer,198.
ha, st “ad vibration in the air, etc.,
Mayer,
Spectra, a sorption, of of — ete., 59.
of star-shine,
age on Soc. of fealy, memoirs, no-
tice 57.
Spectru im, distribution of heat i in, Dra-
, Holden, 423.
uble, 77.
Steam boilers, evaporative efficiency of,
Trow pas
Stevens, R sagt ig in the
stamp 4 ot am York City, 88.
Stokes, ., refraction in Iceland spar,
Sulphur, estimation of, in coal, ete., Miz-
Sonlsht chemical efficiency of, 401.
s chromosphere, magnesium in, 244,
or ‘‘aagotaens of surface, Ericsson,152.
=
Taylor, J. W., separation of pore and
ceria from zirconia and iron,
noti
oo in fiestas spar,
Reye, T., work on Stitwinas ete.,
noti
Biagio, ’R,, relation between color an
Seogra hical distribution in birds, 454.
pied E., fossil man in Italy, noticed,
Rocks ood, C. G., recent oh angry rae
Owen’s Valley earthquake, 3
Rood, 0. N., discharge of Leyden j ed con-
nected wets induction coil, 249, 371.
Rose, G., meteorite of Tbbenbihren, 78.
tg "la, Zollner’s theory of comets,
tances we
aad: wave at Sandwich Is., 331. .
Time a electric, Langley,
Trow ge electrical condition of
gas flam
Ohm's ine considered
geometrical a: of view, 115.
e, W. P., evaporative
of steam boilers, 81.
from a
504
bridge, W. P., Tables and diagrams
gk ae to engines and boilers, noticed, ||
496.
Tse hermal, meteorites of India, 78.
Tuckerman, E., Genera Lichenum, no-
ae 420
ming, £ C., Euclid’s doctrine of
paralicts demonstrated, 333.
Uranium, sgt “g en com-
pounds o
Vv
Vapor vesicles, Plateau,
Venus, papers relating ss gene of, no-
tice
Vesuvius, composition of vapors from,
147.
Vogel, spectrum of — borealis, 487.
Voleanic energy, Mallet,
Volcano, eruption of i. Loa, 331,
406.
WwW
Wagner, R., Hand-book of chemical tech-
nology, notice d, 422.
., prismatic bows on Lake
Geneva, 79.
Water eg an electrolyte, ag
ent action of, 4
Weber, ce F. specific heat of carbon, 228,
Websty, transparen nt garnet from Silesia,
Whitvey, J. D., Owen’s Valley earth-
quake,
INDEX.
Winchell, N. H., surface geology of
northwestern Ohio, 321
oodward, H. , monograph of the Mero-
pointe ‘noti ced, 322.
Wright, 1 spparatus for the pro-
duction of 0Z0'
acti of ozone upon vulcanized
outch:
Warts, an valde nye alcohol
Wurtz and Vogt, formation of ome 312.
ea
oung, C. A. , catalogue of bright lines
in spectrum ‘of the atmosphere, 356.
Yttria — pro separation from zirconia
and iron, 230.
Z
ryeesten ot J., new erecting prism, 64.
ZOOLOG
Birds, bet
Sola distribution in,
Conchology, Journal of, 80.
oral reefs, rate of growth oe 143.
Fishes, nerd of color in
Journal of, n
Monkeys, intelligence in , Cope, 1
hye a North American, “Far.
ger,
Serpents,
Snake, apes 1s habit of, pv 148.
ponges, reproduction of, 249
Terebratulina, ~ vito iets and embryol-
ogy of,
316.
Wilson, double star Castor, 77.
Mors
See further oath pane
ERRATA.
Vol. hie p- oe as “(near Chatham Four-corners)” read “ (near Galesville, Wash-
ington
Vol. iv, page, s, 8th line from top, for A peace read ' ‘ partially.”
: last line, iss “ Tinoceras anceps:
a7
“
”
“ ‘or * read “narrow.”
4 ‘ 13 lines from bottom, for “ but five’ He ‘gis:” .
* _ * 370, 19 lines from foot, before “Trenton,” insert “‘ Quebec.
vi ** 389, line 10 from top, for ventral read
’ ae oe aS ng P, read UT).
oa Ra? Bg * read 300.
APPENDIX.
Summation of Series by Approximative Fractions.
By R. J. Apcocx.
THs method of summation of series consists in putting the
series into a continued fraction by common algebraic division,
and then finding its approximating fractions until one is found
which gives the sum of the series either approximately or
entirely.
Hx. Find the sum of the series a + ar + ar? + ar*+ &e.
a+ar+ar*+ar+&c.) 1 fF
l+rtr+r+é&e. Q
—r—r—r—&e.) a+ar+ar+ar+ &e.(—“
a+ar+ar+ar+&e,. ”
no remainder.
Then
oe aor tke = a+ar+ar+ar+ ee ee
reat ae
a
¢
which is the entire sum of the series and the exact algebraic
expression from which it is derived. To find the sum of n
terms, it is to be observed that beginning with the (n+1)th
= the series is ar*"+ar"*'+ar"*+ &c.=by the same process,
= Hence a+ ar+tarrtarFrt+....ar=
: Ait the common formula for the sum of x
l-r 1l-r 1—r ’
terms of a geometrical series.
The superiority of this method of summation over others is:
First, its comparative simplicity, on account of which it is
worthy of a place in common algebra.
Second, it is more generally applicable than any method _
known to me. ;
Third, the facility with which it gives the entire sum of a
series when capable of being expressed in finite terms, and the
rapidity with which it approximates to the sum of those capa-
ble of being expressed only approximately.
506 Appendix.
Equilibrium of a fluid mass in the form of an ellipsoid rotating
about its shorter axis; by R. J. ADcocK.
A FLUID mass, in the form of an ellipsoid, rotating about its
shortest axis, under the action of the attraction of its own par-
ticles and their centrifugal forces, is in equilibrium; and this
is the only form of equilibrium.
In my work on Gravitation, and in a paper* presented at
the Dubuque meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, it is shown that the ellipsoid is a form
of equilibrium, and the expression found, for the force at any
oint of its surface. It remains, then, only to demonstrate the
ast part of the proposition, that the ellipsoidal form is the only
one of equilibrium, under the given conditions.
roof of this depends upon two propositions.
First. The attractions of two similar bodies for any two ex-
terior points similarly situated, are as their similar dimensions,
and consequently as the distances, of the attracted points from
n in er.
This follows from formula (1) of Gravitation, and the propos!
tion that these shells are the only ones which have the distances
the attractions of its own particles and their centrifugal forces,
attraction of the enveloping shell has no effect on the li i
mass, a property just shown to belong only to the eUP
dal shell whose outer inner surfaces are concent, ©
nd similarly placed. Hence, the ellipsoidal form 1s the
one, under the given conditions, of equilibrium. —
‘This paper and the one presented at the Dubuque meeting of th Ame
te to be inserted in my work on Gravitation, ners w the earth on
AM. JOUR. SCI., IV, Vol. IV, Plate V. 1872.
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